A Guide to Effective Literacy Instruction, Grades 4 to 6 Volume One: Foundations of Literacy Instruction for the Junior Learner 1. The Junior Learner 2.
Text Previews (text result may be not accurate) ISBN 1-4249-0244-4 (vol. 1)
A Guide to Effective Literacy Instruction,
Grades 4 to 6
Volume One: Foundations of Literacy Instruction for the Junior Learner
1. The Junior Learner
2. Knowledge and Skills Required for Literacy
3. Principles of Effective Literacy Instruction
Subsequent volumes in the series will cover a range of topics, including assessment; planning instruction;
the classroom environment and resources; instructional approaches in oral communication, reading,
writing, and media literacy; and technology as it supports literacy instruction and learning.
A Guide to Effective
Literacy Instruction,
Grades 4 to 6
A Guide to Effective
Literacy Instruction,
Grades 4 to 6
A Multivolume Resource from the Ministry of Education
OLUME
Foundations ofLiteracy Instruction for
the Junior Learner
REFACE
...........................................................................................................................1
.................................................................................................................3
..............................................................................11
Introduction .............................................................................................................12
Physical Development ...............................................................................................13
Intellectual Development ..........................................................................................13
Social and Emotional Development ..........................................................................16
Language Background ...............................................................................................19
Family Involvement With the School ........................................................................21
Learning Strengths and Needs ...................................................................................21
Signature Page: Jim Cummins
................................................................................24
NOWLEDGEAND
EQUIREDFOR
..............................27
Introduction .............................................................................................................28
Oral Communication ...............................................................................................31
Cueing Systems: How Language and Words Work ...................................................33
Characteristics of Texts ..............................................................................................36
The Reading Process .................................................................................................41
The Writing Process ..................................................................................................42
Strategies to Make Meaning in Reading and Writing ................................................44
Higher-Order Thinking ............................................................................................55
Tools and Technologies .............................................................................................65
Developmental Stages for Literacy ............................................................................67
Une srie de publications quivalente est disponible en franais sous le titre suivant :
Guide denseignement efficace en matire de littratie de la 4
RINCIPLESOF
..................................75
Introduction .............................................................................................................76
Effective Literacy Instruction Is Research Based ........................................................76
Effective Literacy Instruction Is Differentiated ..........................................................81
Effective Literacy Instruction Is Collaborative ...........................................................92
Effective Literacy Instruction Leads to Learning That Is Transferable
and Enduring ..........................................................................................................104
Planning Checklist for Effective Literacy Instruction ..............................................107
Sample Lesson
Applying Literacy Skills to Content Area Subjects ......................109
.....................................................................................................................115
Introduction ...........................................................................................................117
Skill-Building Strategies and Tools ..........................................................................117
EFERENCESAND
.........................................................................157
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6VOLUME ONE
In order to improve the achievement of all students from Junior Kindergarten to Grade 6,
the Ontario Ministry of Education requires elementary schools to participate in a regular
Literacy for Learning: The Report of the Expert Panel on
Literacy in Grades 4 to 6 in Ontario
, was published in October 2004.
A Guide to Effective Literacy Instruction, Grades 4 to 6
, is based on the research
Literacy for Learning
.) Although the report and the guide cover similar ground,
each has a different focus. The report presents current research and best practices, while
this guide suggests practical ways in which the research can be applied in the classroom.
Educators charged with improving the literacy learning of students in the junior grades
are strongly encouraged to use the guide in conjunction with the expert panels report.
REFACE
In this guide,
literacy
varied forms to read, write, listen, speak, view, represent, and think critically about ideas.
MPORTANCEOF
NSTRUCTIONINTHE
To be successful personally and professionally, todays
students need to be independent, flexible, creative,
They need to be proficient in many literacies that is,
people from diverse backgrounds by means of a wide
Multiliteracies
a wide range of text forms, media, and
their learning potential, keep pace with
participate in the global community.
skills in critical literacy, visual
literacy, media literacy, technological
literacy, cross-curricular literacies
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Text: A Representation of Ideas
over distance and time. In our technologically and culturally complex world, texts come
and electronic forms, using not only words but also graphics and other visual elements.
Literacy for Learning:
The Report of the Expert Panel on Literacy in Grades 4 to 6 in Ontario
educators a great deal of information about how junior students develop as literate
learners and about the knowledge and skills these students need to succeed at each
stage in their development. This guide touches on the research, but its focus is on
practical suggestions for implementing current research in the classroom.
NTARIO
Ontario has two official languages English and French and a wide range of other
languages and dialects that thrive in homes, workplaces, and communities across the
province. English is the language of daily life for the majority of people in Ontario;
for a growing minority, however, it is an additional language.
Census statistics from 2001 show that over 70 per cent of Ontarians identify English
as their first language; just over 4 per cent report French as their first language; and
approximately 24 per cent have a first language other than English or French (Statistics
Canada, 2001 Census). In some large urban areas, school boards have identified more
than seventy-five different home languages and dialects among their students.
Ontarios language diversity can present challenges in the classroom, but it also offers
tremendous opportunities. With increasing globalization, the shift to an information
economy, and growing awareness about how languages influence creative thinking and
problem solving, the evidence is strong that language and cultural diversity are
resources that can enrich classroom learning and benefit all students. The challenge for
schools is to equip children to build on their language foundations while developing
high levels of academic proficiency in English.
Ontarios children have an unparalleled opportunity to learn how to live with respect
and confidence in a multicultural world and to develop the higher-order thinking
skills and critical-literacy skills they will need for responsible citizenship in the global
community and for lifelong learning in the twenty-first century. Teachers play a key
role by ensuring that their literacy instruction and classroom practices address the needs
and experiences of all students. As students participate in building an inclusive community
of learners in the classroom, they learn ways to communicate more effectively in the
OALSFOR
Literacy instruction in the junior grades has one overriding purpose: to enable all
Goal 1: Become a Strategic Reader, Writer, and Oral
Many students who enter Grade 4 are able to understand text
at the literal level, can engage in paired and group discussions,
In other words, they come with the basic foundation for literacy
development. However, as many experts describe, this basic
foundation is only the beginning. To progress through the junior
grades and beyond,
students need to continually develop their
strategies for
making meaning and communicating effectively.
Strategic r
eaders, writers, and oral communicators are able to
do the following:
identify the purpose of a text, and the intended audience
used throughout this guide to
refer to the
of readers and writers in inter-
enriching ones understanding
apply their literacy and communication skills in all
subjects and in new situations
make choices about which strategies and skills to use
in a given situation
Goal 2: Expand Thinking Skills, Developing the
Necessary Habits of Mind
Research has shown that effective readers and
writers use intentional thinking skills to regulate
their reading and writing processes, to formulate ideas,
to solve problems, and to make meaning. Using
higher-order thinking, they are able to move beyond
Literacy for
Learning
, p. 32).
In junior classrooms where effective literacy instruction takes place, there is an
emphasis on higher-order thinking.
Higher-order thinking
refers to the transformation
use them to synthesize, generalize, explain, hypothesize, or arrive at some conclusion
Literacy for Learning
, p. 116).
is the process of thinking about ones own
Critical literacy
requires the ability and willingness to look beyond the literal meaning
of texts to observe what is present and what is missing, in order to analyse and evaluate
the meaning and the authors intent (
Literacy for Learning
, p. 116). It goes beyond
conventional critical thinking to engage with issues of fairness, equity, and social justice.
Critical-literacy skills equip students with the ability to analyse how authors develop
texts in order to influence readers; they also give students the knowledge, skills, and
confidence to develop their own perspectives and world view (
Literacy for Learning
, p. 37).
For reflective learners, these skills can become a call to social action, challenging them
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
tations, Web pages, or any text that requires a
is understood to include the
Habits of mind
necessary for higher-order thinking include open-mindedness, persever-
curiosity, and independent thinking. Costa and Kallick define
the stance that individuals adopt when confronted with problems that do not have
immediate answers. The habits of mind that facilitate higher-order thinking transcend
all subject areas. They are what make
learning continual, workplaces productive
and democracies enduring (Costa and Kallick, p. 12).
Costa and Kallick believe that students need to develop the habits of mind represented
in the diagram above. They agree that these habits of mind are characteristic of peak
performers in all fields.
Goal 3: Deepen the Motivation to Learn
Another major goal of literacy instruction is to instil
in students an appreciation of the value and power
of reading and writing so that they will choose to
read and write throughout their lives for personal
and professional reasons. Students need to under-
stand how reading and writing will help them learn
about themselves, solve problems, and explore and
with understanding
and empathy
flexibly
our thinking
To motivate... is to bring out the best
enjoy helping others excel, grow, and
discover, you
Goal 4: Develop Independence as a Learner
Proficient communicators dig deep for meaning and develop their own stance and
voice as independent thinkers. Effective literacy instruction strives to move students
along a continuum of learning towards this independence, scaffolding their learning
and gradually releasing responsibility to students as they master strategies and skills.
Along the way, students learn to do the following:
use appropriate strategies during reading and writing, with limited teacher support
select texts and text forms for different purposes
engage in accountable talk
draw on internal motivation to read and write
transfer learning to new situations
persist when faced with a difficult task
ESSAGESFOR
EACHERSAND
The key messages for teachers listed in the following chart are intended to help teachers
address the goals of the junior literacy program. They are the fundamental ideas that
underlie all of the approaches, strategies, and tools described in this guide. They answer
the question, Why am I teaching this material, in this way, to this group of students,
at this time? Teachers can use these key messages to guide their practice.
The key messages for students correspond to the messages for teachers. By conveying
these messages to students and ensuring that students internalize them, teachers will
have gone a long way towards giving their students the understandings and tools they
need to become proficient readers, writers, and oral communicators, and to succeed
at school and in their future lives.
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Look for the symbol of a key throughout this volume to identify
Key Messages for Teachers and Students
understand that:
Talk is the foundation for literacy.
understand that:
strategies
I have valuable knowledge and experiences that
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
RGANIZATIONAND
EATURESOF
A Guide to Effective Literacy Instruction, Grades 4 to 6
, is organized into several volumes.
The first three volumes provide the foundation for effective literacy instruction and
literacy learning in the junior grades. Subsequent volumes go more deeply into what
to teach and how in order to help all students experience success.
About Volume 1
Volume 1, Foundations of Literacy Instruction for the Junior Learner, establishes the
context for a comprehensive examination of effective literacy instruction in Grades 4 to 6.
The volume comprises three chapters Chapter 1, The Junior Learner; Chapter 2,
Knowledge and Skills Required for Literacy; and Chapter 3, Principles of Effective
Literacy Instruction and an appendix, which provides more than fifty practical classroom
strategies and tools. The strategies and tools outlined in the appendix will be helpful
to teachers as they apply the ideas presented in Chapters 13 in their classrooms.
Throughout this guide, the Application in Appendix icon shown here in the margin
is used to draw teachers attention to items in the appendix that are relevant to the
APPLICATION
Introduction
...........................................................................................................12
Factors That Affect Literacy Learning in the Junior Grades ..............................12
Physical Development
............................................................................................13
Intellectual Development
.......................................................................................13
Grade 4 A Critical Year .................................................................................14
Social and Emotional Development
......................................................................16
Personal Identity ..............................................................................................17
Gender .............................................................................................................18
Language Background
............................................................................................19
Family Involvement With the School
....................................................................21
Learning Strengths and Needs
...............................................................................21
Learning Styles .................................................................................................22
Multiple Intelligences .......................................................................................22
Signature Page
The Challenge of Learning Academic Language, by Jim Cummins ..................24
Students enter the junior grades with a zest for learning, full of wonder, excited
to discover more about themselves and the world. They are ready to be taught the
They enliven
the classroom with their wealth of
experiences, backgrounds, abilities,
and interests.
These students generally range in age from nine to twelve years, putting them squarely
in the category of
tweens
. The term
tweens
Factors That Affect Literacy Learning in the Junior Grades
In a typical junior classroom, students will be at varying stages of physical, intellectual,
social, and emotional development. Some will be operating at a primary level while
others may already have progressed beyond their grade level. Each students progress
in literacy and in specific subject areas will be influenced by a complex interplay of
factors, which are depicted in the web diagram below and discussed in the subsequent
sections of this chapter. It is the job of the classroom teacher to build on the diverse
strengths of all students and support them as they continue to develop into proficient,
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
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Attention span
S
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Motivation to lea
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The Junior Learner: A Web of Characteristics and Influences
I have valuable knowledge
and experiences that I can
share with my classmates.
I need to use my literacy
skills to work with texts
of all types.
From the ages of eight to twelve years, students undergo many physical changes. Although
the rate of physical development varies widely from one individual to another, most
are able to sit and pay attention for longer periods of time;
are developing greater manual dexterity and coordination, which influence fine-motor
need opportunities to move and engage in active learning.
What Teachers Do
Teachers:
actively involve students in reading, writing, talking, and thinking,
in various forms;
include drama, role playing, and hands-on activities that involve tools,
props, and other manipulatives;
Intellectually, junior students develop the capacity to examine increasingly complex
topics in greater depth and breadth. They begin to see themselves as readers and writers.
However, the literacy development of students in a typical classroom varies widely.
Their interests and confidence greatly influence what and how much they read and write.
begin to apply logical rules and reasoning;
CHAPTER 1THE JUNIOR LEARNER
I read and write,I will
improve my learning.
develop higher-order thinking skills, including skills of analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation although they remain susceptible to believing what they see in print
are motivated to acquire knowledge and to explore and investigate
develop a greater appreciation of the
Grade 4 A Critical Year
A large number of students with initial reading and writing skills may be challenged
by the more intricate tasks required to make meaning of the subject-specific texts that
are introduced in the junior grades. Starting in Grade 4,
students are faced with new demands and responsibilities
they are asked to read and write longer texts involving
more complex subject matter and to think about more
Grade 4 teachers are challenged to guide students carefully
towards developing the skills and knowledge they need to
What Teachers Do
Teachers:
provide texts of all types that are developmentally appropriate, interesting, and relevant;
introduce increasingly complex texts that are appropriate for the students, presented
in a wide range of text forms and genres;
include anecdotes, mysteries, humour, word play, facts, puns, riddles, fiction,
inquiry, and research on a range of topics;
offer choices that include texts with multiple layers of meaning;
provide daily opportunities for sustained reading, writing, and accountable talk;
establish a safe environment that promotes risk taking;
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
We consider everything we do to be
[approach to] reading and that we are
what they read on to our students. We plan
reading. We consider instructional experi-
understand that reading is thinking.
(Sibberson and Szymusiak, 2003, p. 10)
engage students in authentic, relevant, and rich learning experiences, including
opportunities to read and write about things that interest the students;
use graphic organizers and the arts to explore ideas, deepen understanding, and
convey meaning;
draw attention to the writers craft in texts that interest the students (mentor texts),
and encourage them to try similar language and techniques in their own writing.
To develop student strategies and skills, teachers:
use instructional approaches that are highly structured and that
include scaffolded support, in order to ensure that students are able
to respond to the task;
explicitly teach strategies (through modelling, demonstration, and
think-aloud) that promote comprehension and problem solving,
demonstrate and explicitly teach literacy skills in all subject areas;
CHAPTER 1THE JUNIOR LEARNER
The strategies I am
learning will help me
independent reader,writer,
and communicator.
I learn best when I am
a real purpose.
Accountable talk helps
me to improve my reading,
writing,and thinking.
I can apply the strategies
and skills that I learn in
Language to all subjects.
Thinking about my
learned,make decisions
independent learner.
I need to think about
provide constructive, focused feedback on a regular basis to involve students
in monitoring their own learning;
build upon students strengths and celebrate their successes, using positive
OCIALAND
Junior students are developing social awareness and skills that influence their relation-
ships with others and their ideas about the world. They:
develop a sense of justice, concern, and empathy for others, and become less
are more willing and able to consider different points of view and to change their
form critical judgements about social issues;
have a more flexible sense of right and wrong than they did when they were younger;
develop leadership qualities;
may challenge the adult world and test boundaries that are
What Teachers Do
Teachers:
provide plentiful opportunities for students to talk and interact in flexible and
dynamic groupings, including small groups and pairs;
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
things in 250 shades of gray, but they
(Kutner, n.d.)
Working with others gives
to reflect on and expand my
own thinking and learning.
Knowing how to read,write,
throughout my future.
The teachers feedback
will help me to improve
my learning.
Some tasks will be difficult,
that I need to succeed.
model and help students to build a community of learners
where all students feel affirmed, support each others learn-
ing, and are prepared to take risks;
extend opportunities for collaborative learning to include
teach students to assume a critical stance when responding
model and provide opportunities for exploration, active
listening, debate, discussion, and persuasive argument;
establish routines and procedures that promote personal
responsibility and respectful interaction, and reinforce
these with lessons and anchor charts (see Anchor Charts
Junior students are strongly influenced by the cultures of their families and communities
but are also developing their own identity. They:
begin to develop their own beliefs and values and to take responsibility for their
own actions;
realize that some of their attitudes and values differ from those of their siblings,
their parents, and other adults;
may look beyond parents and teachers for their role models towards characters
from various media, including television, movies, music, sports, and books;
may be unsure of who they are and where they fit in;
are anxious to cultivate a more sophisticated self-image seeking ways to be cool;
What Teachers Do
Teachers:
ask students about themselves, their attitudes, and their interests. They do not assume
that any one aspect of a students cultural, linguistic, or personal identity is the
CHAPTER 1THE JUNIOR LEARNER
(Gregory and Chapman,
APPLICATION
provide opportunities for students both to read and to write about things
that interest them;
provide positive role models through biographies, historical texts, informa-
texts, current events, and literature in many genres, and include
heroes who break free from negative peer pressure;
ensure that texts, images, celebrations, and examples reflect the global
There is a large body of evidence, including data from the province-wide assessments
of literacy achievement in Grades 3 and 6, showing a discrepancy in both the literacy
attitudes and the literacy achievement levels of boys and girls. Research indicates that
fewer boys than girls like to read and write, and fewer boys than girls feel that they are
good readers and writers.
What Teachers Do
Teachers:
offer varied forms of literacy instruction, including active-learning opportunities
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
To engage students in
(Literacy for Learning,
consider differences in fine-motor skills, language
development, learning pace, and learning styles, and
offer opportunities for students to choose activities
that draw on their strengths in order to show what
they know and can do;
provide opportunities for flexible and varied groupings
(for example, all boys, all
and mixed groupings);
Regardless of their language background, most junior students are far more confident
as speakers than as readers or writers. Their vocabulary is increasing although the
language they use to express themselves (their expressive language) tends to lag behind
the language they understand (their receptive language).
Students whose first language is not the language of instruction have both advantages
From their language background, they have:
an understanding of how languages work;
prior knowledge and experiences that can enrich their
CHAPTER 1THE JUNIOR LEARNER
Gender and Literacy Learning
For more information about the
Me Read? No Way! A Practical
online at www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/
(Cummins, n.d.)
What Teachers Do
Teachers:
consider a students literacy in his or her first language as a foundation for developing
literacy skills in the language of instruction;
provide the background knowledge that students need to understand unfamiliar
allow second-language learners to use their first languages when necessary to clarify
their understanding and to keep up with content learning in all subject areas;
encourage students to maintain and further develop their
proficiency in other languages and to use this knowledge as a
scaffold for developing their proficiency in English and French;
support the use of translation programs, electronic dictionaries,
from one language to another;
provide flexible student groupings that allow students to support
instruction;
encourage parents to read to their children in the familys home language;
celebrate language diversity in the classroom by talking about the language back-
grounds of students and by encouraging students to share stories and information
from their backgrounds;
in selecting texts for classroom learning, include stories and information that
feature the languages and cultures of the students, and encourage students to see
the connections among various languages and cultures;
use total physical response (TPR) to help second-language learners for example,
through gestures, variation in voice, or pantomime (see Total Physical Response
offer student-led conferences in which students can use their first language;
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Helping Students to Develop
Language, by Jim Cummins, on
pages 2425.
APPLICATION
CHAPTER 1THE JUNIOR LEARNER
Junior students thrive in schools that are family-friendly, and in families that are school-
(Literacy for Learning, p. 19)
AMILY
NVOLVEMENT
ITHTHE
What Teachers Do
Teachers:
communicate regularly with parents about the literacy learning of their children;
welcome parents into the school and actively engage them in supporting student
become aware of the local community and its cultures especially the cultures of
students and their families and use this awareness when choosing texts and literacy
activities for the classroom;
organize family literacy events;
use translators to help families participate and feel included in school events.
TRENGTHSAND
learning styles
intelligences
. Either of these models, alone or in combination, can be used as part of
diagnostic assessment before learning. The information that is collected about each
students strengths and preferences can help the teacher to consciously adapt instructional
Learning-styles theory suggests that there are three kinds of learners:
Visual learners
learn through seeing. They prefer to have ideas and concepts
demonstrated for them. Charts, diagrams, and visual displays also help the
visual learner.
Auditory learners
learn best by listening and talking through ideas with others.
Written information may make little sense to them until it is read aloud or
prefer to be actively engaged. They enjoy hands-on
Multiple intelligences, as identified by Howard Gardner, reflect eight different ways to
demonstrate intellectual ability (Gardner 1983; 1993). Individuals generally have some
abilities in all eight categories but will tend to favour or show strength in a particular
few. Being aware of all eight forms of intelligence enables teachers to plan activities
that build on the strengths of each student and that help students to develop their
intelligences in areas that are not naturally strong. It is important for teachers to vary
their approaches and class work to ensure that students grow in all eight areas.
The chart on page 23 outlines the eight intelligences and identifies several characteristics
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Multiple Intelligences Surveys
Grades 4 to 6. Survey 2 uses more advanced ideas and language, and may be more
APPLICATIONS
CHAPTER 1THE JUNIOR LEARNER
Verbal/Linguistic
Visual/Spatial
recognizes and manipulates patterns in a wide
area or a confined space
needs to see in order to understand
uses visual clues to make meaning
works with images, mind mapping, visualizing,
may hum and whistle while working
makes connections to sounds in the environment
creates imaginative and expressive performances
responds to auditory stimuli using rhythm, melody,
patterned sound, song, rap, dance
understands self as a learner and uses this
is independent and self-directed
can be reserved
reflects on and analyses personal learning
recognizes abstract patterns and relationships
reasons logically
hypothesizes
invents
investigates issues scientifically
likes challenges
is people-oriented and outgoing
understands the intentions, motivations, and
learns best cooperatively
demonstrates confident and appropriate social skills
shares effectively
loves nature and is curious about it
recognizes and classifies many of the species
notices patterns in the environment
has extensive knowledge of the living world
can precisely discriminate among objects or
spends time outdoors
The major challenge for students in the early grades
of elementary school is learning how to decode
written text. Students acquire decoding skills by
means of balanced instruction that develops their
awareness of how the sounds of the language map
on to written symbols and encourages them to apply
these skills in the context of extensive reading and
writing. However, the acquisition of fluent decoding
skills in the primary grades is only the beginning
stage in becoming a strong reader. Students in the
the difficulty of the concepts that students are
the vocabulary load in subject texts that include
many low-frequency and technical words that
we almost never use in everyday conversation
(for example, typical of academic texts are words
analysis, sequence, fluctuation, criterion
that derive from Latin and Greek sources);
increasingly sophisticated grammatical construc-
tions (such as the passive voice) that again are
almost never used in everyday conversational
contexts.
Students are not only required to read this language,
they must also use it in writing reports, essays, and
other forms of academic work.
In short, academic language is the language of school
success. We find this language predominantly in
books. Therefore, students who read extensively
both inside and outside the school have far greater
opportunities to acquire academic language than
those whose reading is limited.
How Long Does It Take
There are large numbers of second-language learners
in urban schools across Ontario. Therefore, any dis-
cussion of literacy development must take account of
the specific challenges that these students encounter
Many research studies conducted in several coun-
tries show clearly that second-language learners
usually require at least five years to catch up to
native speakers in academic language proficiency.
By contrast, it takes only about one to two years for
students to become reasonably fluent in conversa-
tional language. An implication of these time peri-
ods is that second-language students will typically
require additional support to gain access to the lan-
guage of the curriculum and to harvest the language
of academic texts.
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Academic Language
University ofToronto
Jim Cummins teaches in the Department of Curriculum,Teaching
and Learning of the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the
University ofToronto.His research has focused on the nature of language
proficiency and second-language acquisition,with particular emphasis
on the social and educational barriers that limit academic success for
culturally diverse students.His publications include
Language,Power,and
Pedagogy:Bilingual Children in the Crossfire
(Clevedon,England:Multilingual
Matters,2000).
Signature Page
A crucial component of this support is encouraging
and enabling students to read extensively. Because
academic language is found primarily in written
texts and in all curricular areas (novels, textbooks,
newspapers, and math problems, for example), sup-
port must extend across the curriculum and be
provided by all teachers, not just by specialized
to Develop Academic Language?
students carry out in school and out of school is
obviously a central strategy in helping students
develop their knowledge of academic language.
Many schools organize book fairs, author visits,
the involvement of parents in supporting stu-
dentsliteracy in both the home and the school
the schools orientation towards the language and
culture of diverse students. Extensive research
clearly shows that literacy in two languages
is educationally enriching; thus, schools should
be proactive in supporting the development of
studentshome language and literacy skills;
the ways in which technology can be harnessed
to amplify studentslanguage exploration and
literacy engagement.
It is important to note that school-based language
and literacy policy is a process rather than a product.
Although at some point a policy may be articulated
in a written document, it should be revisited and
regular dialogue among teachers and parent represen-
tatives
about initiatives, resources, and directions.
Specific strategies that schools in Ontario and
elsewhere have adopted to enable culturally and lin-
guistically diverse students to invest their identities
in literacy include the following:
From Kindergarten on, students bring in words to
French) to explore with peers and the teacher.
Students discuss why they chose these words and,
working in groups, they incorporate them into
technology-supported multimedia glossaries
English/French and the studentshome languages.
Students illustrate these books, which can then be
schools website (for an outstanding example, see
the website created by Thornwood Elementary
School in the Peel District School Board,
http://thornwood.peelschools.org/Dual/). These
books can be termed
, insofar as
students invest their identities in the creation
of the texts (written, spoken, visual, musical,
dramatic, or combinations in multimodal form)
that then hold a mirror up to students in which
their identities are reflected back in a positive
light. When students share identity texts with
grandparents, sister classes, and the media, for
example) they are likely to receive positive
feedback and affirmation of self in interaction
In short, in the junior grades the major challenge for
schools is to create a climate in which students
engagement with literacy shapes their identities as
intelligent, imaginative, and talented human beings
CHAPTER 1THE JUNIOR LEARNER
Introduction
...........................................................................................................28
The Four Roles of a Literate Learner ................................................................28
The Relationship Among the Reader, the Text, the Teacher,
and the Author ...............................................................................................29
The Interrelationship of the Knowledge and Skills Required
for Literacy .....................................................................................................31
Oral Communication
.............................................................................................31
Oral Fluency ....................................................................................................31
Accountable Talk ..............................................................................................32
Cueing Systems: How Language and Words Work
...............................................33
Semantics .........................................................................................................34
Syntactics .........................................................................................................35
Pragmatics ........................................................................................................35
Graphophonics .................................................................................................36
Characteristics of Texts
...........................................................................................36
Text Features ....................................................................................................38
Text Forms and Genres ....................................................................................38
The Reading Process
..............................................................................................41
The Writing Process
...............................................................................................42
Strategies to Make Meaning in Reading and Writing
...........................................44
Higher-Order Thinking
.........................................................................................55
Tools and Technologies
..........................................................................................65
Developmental Stages for Literacy
........................................................................67
Overview of Reading Developmental Continuum ............................................68
Overview of Writing Developmental Continuum ............................................70
Overview of Oral Language Developmental Continuum .................................72
NOWLEDGEAND
EQUIREDFOR
The knowledge and skills required for literacy are not isolated elements taught in a
lock-step sequence; rather, they are interrelated components that support and build
on each other as students explore increasingly complex language and texts in the
To develop as literate learners, students need explicit instruction in the
components of reading, writing, oral communication, and higher-
order thinking and
in authentic contexts. Studentsneed to have the knowledge and skills that
, just as proficient communicators
do. They need to think like readers, writers, and speakers as
and create, increasingly complex texts of all types.
Students require explicit instruction in essential skills and strategies.
They also need to understand that becoming literate is a lifelong process.
as new forms of communication are developed
and language continues to evolve over time. Teachers need to model that
they themselves are learners.
This chapter outlines some of the knowledge and skills that junior students need in
order to develop literacy. Literacy learning continues throughout school and beyond
the school years. It is important to remember that the skills and knowledge taught
through the use of specific resources are transferable to other subject areas and aspects
of life, and that they are enduring. It is not essential that students learn the parts of a
plant. It
essential that they learn how to find the information, how to read a diagram,
and how to remember significant information.
Literacy in the twenty-first century involves not a single skill but a complex combination
of skills and resources that the literate learner draws upon to make meaning from texts
of many types. One approach to understanding this complex process is offered by
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Reading,writing,talking,
listening,thinking,viewing,
literacy processes.
By gradually releasing respon-
teachers help students improve
Authentic literacy experiences
and attitudes that will serve
and improve the quality of
It is important for teachers to integrate the four roles in a meaningful way in all subjects
across the curriculum. The roles are
intended to be addressed in a linear sequence
for example, by teaching code-breaking skills first and then moving on to meaning
making when students have learned the essential code-breaking skills. Students who
are struggling with reading or writing may need considerable scaffolded support from
the teacher as they work with increasingly complex texts; however, all students can
develop as critical and analytical thinkers while they are acquiring their literacy skills.
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
uses prior knowledge and experience to construct
understands diverse vocabulary.
Text User
understands that the purpose and audience help
recognizes and uses the features and structures
Text Analyser
(What does this do to me?)
understands that texts are not neutral, that they
(Based on Freebody and Lukes four resources model, 1990; adapted from
Literacy for Learning
, p. 9)
The Relationship Among the Reader, the Text, the Teacher,
As reflected in the accompanying diagram (on page 30), Jim Burke illustrates the
idea that meaning is constructed as a result of negotiation among the reader, the text,
the author, and, at times, the teacher or a knowledgeable other. That is why two readers
why ho
Text
Worl
Teacher
The World Asks
Why are you asking our children to read this particular
How does this text reflect our standards and
How does this text help to prepare them for life?
Is this text consistent with our communitys values?
What role can we play to help our children read/use
What is my subject?
What is my objective?
Which is the most appropriate form or genre for
Which is the most appropriate medium for the content?
How does this text relate to my past work and the
Who is my audience?
What assumptions can I make about my intended
Who (or what) do I want them to be when they enter
What will the reader/user need to know to read/use
What is the best way to organize this information?
Who am I as I read this text?
Why am I reading it?
What do I need to know and be able to do to read/use
How does this text relate to what I have read and studied
How will I read this text?
How does the author (based on the format/design)
Why should I trust this author?
How does this text work?
What, if anything, should I do while I read this text?
What strategies can I use to read this text successfully?
What question do I need to be able to answer when I
How does this relate to other works by this author?
The Teacher Asks:
Why did I choose this text?
What is my objective in teaching it?
How does it relate to what they read before and will
Who (or what) do I want them to be when they enter
What knowledge/skills must I develop in them BEFORE
What is my attitude toward this text?
What is my role/responsibility in this particular interaction
The Relationship Among Reader, Text, Teacher, and Author
(Reproduced, with permission, from
Illuminating Texts: How to Teach Students to Read the World
by Jim Burke [Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2001], p. 88.)
for Literacy
The knowledge and skills required for literacy the focus of this chapter
fall into a number of distinct but interrelated areas. Each of these areas
OMMUNICATION
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
and writing development, especially for intermediate students, who are expanding their
(Fountas and Pinnell, 2001, p. 21)
that their literacy skills
Oral communication skills both speaking and listening provide the foundation for
literacy. These skills include oral fluency (the smooth flow of speech) and the cognitive
Students need to develop oral fluency if they are to become proficient speakers and
effective readers and writers of increasingly complex texts. Fluency refers to the ability
to use language with ease, clarity, and automaticity without struggling at the level
of words and sentences. Fluent language users are able to decode words and sentences
quickly and accurately; to read, write, and speak with expression and ease; and to
comprehend the meaning in written and spoken language.
Talk is the foundation for
literacy.
Literacy instruction must
be differentiated,inclusive,
Fluency also affects the motivation to read and write. Students are less likely to persist
in a subject if they lack the technical vocabulary and familiarity with the concepts
and content they need to decode texts with relative ease and automaticity. (See the
Signature Page, The Challenge of Learning Academic Language, by Jim Cummins,
pages 2425 in this volume.)
When faced with texts that are beyond their level of fluency, or subjects beyond their
current understanding, students need explicit strategies and scaffolded support that will
help them to make meaning. For more on scaffolding, see page 80 in Chapter 3 of this
volume, Principles of Effective Literacy Instruction.
Accountable Talk
refers to talk that is meaningful, respectful, and mutually
beneficial to both speaker and listener. When students engage in accountable talk
(Allen, 2002), they do the following:
focus on the topic and purpose of the discussion
attend to the listeners needs and what others are saying
seriously respond to and build on what others have said
give evidence to support their points of view
help each other to reach a common understanding, and share responsibility for the
learning of the whole group
Accountable talk stimulates higher-order thinking helping students to learn, reflect
on their learning, and communicate their knowledge and understanding. To promote
accountable talk, teachers create a collaborative learning environment in which students
feel confident in expressing their ideas, opinions, and knowledge. The chart on page 33
describes aspects of accountable talk in the junior classroom.
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
The Importance of Talk in Chapter 3, Principles of Effective
the following strategies/tools in the appendix to this volume: Book Talks; Carousel;
APPLICATIONS
ANGUAGEAND
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
Characteristics of Accountable Talk in the Classroom
Watching the speaker
Nodding to encourage the speaker
Semantics
Syntactics
Pragmatics
Graphophonics
Semantics
refers to the
in languagethat comes from the readers experiential
and conceptual background. It is what the reader
the words, phrases, sentences,
meaning from a text. Meaning exists in the mind of the reader rather than on the
printed page. In order to develop comprehension and fluency, therefore, junior students
must go beyond memorizing a bank of words to develop the habit of using prior
knowledge and problem-solving skills to find the meaning of new words.
The word
microscope
, for example, is easier to recall if students know that
refers
to an instrument for viewing and
micro-
is a combining form meaning very small.
Equipped with this knowledge, students can then tackle words that share the same origins
(derivatives), such as those illustrated in the following chart:
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Exploring Word Origins and Derivatives
micromicroscopescope
micro-machinemicroscopictelescopic
microcosmmicro-organismperiscope
Far from being passive consumers of information, proficient language users monitor
their understanding of language and actively try to make sense of words. They ask for
clarification if they do not understand a new word, and compare new concepts with their
existing understanding. For example, when faced with a new word such as
equivalent
effective readers might notice the
portion and reason that this word could be
related to
. They would then confirm or modify their guess by reading the word
in context, asking a peer, checking a dictionary, or using other strategies. When reading
a passage, they monitor their comprehension and use appropriate fix-up strategies if
Effective writers monitor their use of language by reading a draft aloud to see if the
content conveys the intended message when they hear it in spoken form. Depending
on the purpose and audience, the vocabulary and grammar of a written text may need
to be more precise than would be necessary in speech, but the written text should still
convey the clarity and flow of effective oral language.
Syntax
refers to the generally accepted ways words in a language are combined to
form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax includes classes of words (such as noun,
verb, and adjective) and their functions (such as subject and object) (
Literacy for
Learning
, p. 65).
As they develop greater language awareness, students begin to see patterns at the level
of syntax. They realize, for example, that
added to the end of a base word usually
. This is important in spelling, since the sound at
. In reading, the
ending likewise
Students also learn, of course, that there are many exceptions to this rule. Through
listening to oral language, they realize that the past tense of
went
. Patterns at the level of syntax become more complex as students progress through
the junior grades and include concepts such as possessives and contractions.
Pragmatics
is the study of how people choose what they say or write from the range of
possibilities available in the language, and how listeners or readers are affected by those
choices. Pragmatics involves understanding how the context influences the way sentences
convey information (
Literacy for Learning
, p. 65).
Strategic communicators are able to use all aspects of language to make sense of the world,
and use language in diverse ways to accomplish specific purposes. They understand the
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
announcements, using a more informal voice and graphical style that would appeal
to a younger audience.
Pragmatics also involves understanding subtle, non-verbal nuances of communication.
For example, knowledge of how design, light, colour, and sound influence a person can
equip students to be more conscious and critical consumers when they view a television
program or a product display in a department store. In face-to-face communication,
being able to read body language, intonation, and pace of delivery can help students
Readers use graphophonic cues along with semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic cues
Graphophonics
refers to the relationships
in a unit on the Middle Ages, they will be
able to read it correctly by relating it to the word
Likewise,
will be easier to spell if they link it by analogy with
HARACTERISTICSOF
In addition to recognizing patterns at the level of words and sentences, literate learners
look for recognizable patterns in whole texts. These include the following:
Text features:
features of the design and structure, or orderly presentation, of text
Text forms:
structures and functions of texts
Genres:
literary or thematic categories
The chart on page 37 lists some examples of text features, text forms, and genres.
Learning to draw consciously on their understanding of text features, text forms,
and genres helps junior students to make meaning from increasingly complex texts
in a range of media, including print and electronic texts. This knowledge also helps
students to write more effectively, using strategies that match their purpose and
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
involving texts of
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
Text, Features, Forms, and Genres
Text Features
navigation aids
Table of contents
Title and topic
Typographical or design
Font or type style
Timelines
Text Forms
diaries, journals, short stories,
novels, memoirs
recipes, rule books, directions
and maps, instruction manuals,
essays, position papers,
articles, advertisements
studies, history, geography
multimedia texts, e-mail,
blogs, websites, broadcasts
Text Forms and Genres
Text forms and genres offer a framework within which readers and writers make or
Text form
can refer to both the function and the structure of
a text (for example, a summary, laboratory report, procedure,
essay, narrative, or jot notes in print or electronic form).
Genre
refers to the theme or literary category of a text (for
example, fantasy, science fiction, historical fiction, biography,
Literacy for Learning
, p. 82). Students need to be exposed
Text Features
Text features are physical or design characteristics of a text that clarify and/or give support
to the meaning in the text. Examples include the title, headings and subheadings,
illustrations, and other elements listed in the Text Features, Forms,
and Genres chart. Well-designed text features can help readers to navigate the text,
find the most important information, and see the connections among related ideas.
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
(Lattimer, 2003, p. 3)
and as a kind of text an instance of genre. And what kind of thing it is puts some limits
(Bomer, 1995, as cited in Lattimer, 2003, p. 3)
leads to greater independence for students, since
they will be able to apply their knowledge to
in school and throughout their lives. What is
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
become the norm for communication. We
to know in the future, but we can teach ways
of learning genres and help them develop the
(Lattimer, 2003, p. xi)
Organizational Patterns Found in Informational Texts
presents events in time
presents information
presents
identifies characteristics
Signal Words That Guide
fter, afterwards, as soon as,
before, during, finally, first, following,
ately, initially, later, meanwhile,
long after, now, on, preced-
ing, second, soon, then, third, today,
although, as opposed to, as well as,
from, either... or, even though,
however, in common, instead of, on
What conclusion does the author reach about
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Organizational Patterns Found in Informational Texts
Signal Words That Guide
describes characteristics
of specific persons,
organizes a large body
identifies time, place,
sequence of incidents,
organizes information into
Process/cause and effect
organizes information into
Reading in the junior grades is an interactive, problem-solving process, with the primary
purpose of making meaning (
Literacy for Learning
, p. 61). The process is not linear;
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
What would I like to know?
me remember or keep track of my
Use strategies to make meaning,
making connections
Hmm, I wonder
That reminds me of ...
I think ... because ...
question ...
What is this authors intent?
Assess, critique, and reflect on
I ask myself:
What do I know now that I didnt
Writing, in the junior grades, provides students with powerful opportunities to learn
about themselves and their connections to the world. Through writing, students organize
their thoughts, remember important information, solve problems, reflect on a widening
range of perspectives, and learn how to communicate effectively for specific purposes
and audiences (
Literacy for Learning
, p. 79).
Proficient writers know how to approach the writing task in manageable steps. They
understand that the writing process is similar to the reading process in that it is recursive,
meaning that the results of one step may require them to go back and repeat steps in
order to refine their thinking and improve the final product. Revision, for example,
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
The Writing Process
I ask:
Whats my topic?
Whos my
What is my
What writing
What do I
What informa-
What literary
What terminolo-
Organize the
Develop an
Write a rough
stage, I might ask:
Do I have
Is my opening
Where does
What is the most
What am I really
Have I covered
Is this a good
Have I presented
Have I used
Read the text for
clarity and flow.
draft, I might ask:
Do I have
Do I have the
Do I need to think
What can I cut
Does the opening
grab the readers
What techniques
Does the
Is the conclusion
Is the voice or
Do I leave the
Compare the
To reflect on my
What have I
How can I
Will I include
Have I achieved
What does this
Will this writing
Proofread.
Correct mechan-
Share the
To polish the text,
Is the text as
error-free as I
Did I proofread
Did I read it
Did I use
Prepare the final
Share with
To share the text
Does this need
What publication
(Adapted from Fountas and Pinnell, 2001, and Spandel, 2005)
TRATEGIESTO
EANINGIN
EADINGAND
The essential purpose of both reading and writing is to make meaning. Effective readers
Activating prior knowledge and schema for reading and writing
Generating ideas for writing
Making connections
Establishing and identifying tone and voice when writing and reading
Questioning
Visualizing
Summarizing
Inferring
Predicting
Synthesizing
Evaluating
Monitoring and repairing understanding
Teachers must introduce these strategies one at a time by modelling the strategy
and then providing students with ample time to practise. Teachers must also read
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Reading,writing,talking,
listening,thinking,viewing,
literacy processes.
Literacy instruction must
be explicit and relevant
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
Although students learn about the strategies one at a time, it is important for them to
realize that these strategies are not meant to be used in isolation. When students have
1.D
2.D
Proficient readers decide on their purpose for reading and select a text that serves that
purpose. They also approach the reading differently, depending on their purpose for
reading. If they are doing research, they will assume a serious stance, select a resource
that contains the information they need, and use appropriate tools (highlighter, stickies)
as they skim and scan the resource, looking for significant facts.
If the reader is reading for pleasure, the stance is different. Readers are more relaxed
processes we go
readers do. We
explicitly teach reading
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
3.A
CTIVATING
NOWLEDGEAND
CHEMAFOR
EADINGAND
Prior knowledge
refer to the knowledge and experiences that readers and
writers bring to a text and draw on continually to construct meaning. Their previously
acquired understanding of how various text forms work, of how words are constructed to
change or alter their meaning, and of how phrases and sentences can be constructed for
4.G
ENERATING
DEASFOR
Proficient writers draw on their prior knowledge and experiences. They are observant
and collect ideas for future reference.
APPLICATION
prior knowledge causes students to
(Robb, 2000, p. 117)
5.M
Making connections is an intricate, ongoing process of interacting with the text. It involves
making connections within the text to related ideas, and beyond the text to prior
knowledge and other sources of information.
There are three types of connections that readers and writers make: text-to-text, text-
to-self, and text-to-world (Keene and Zimmerman, 1997; Harvey and Goudvis, 2000).
These connections help readers to relate to characters, visualize, avoid boredom, listen
to others, read actively, remember what they read, and ask questions (Tovani, 2000).
They help writers to make sense of their own ideas and to communicate those ideas in
The following examples illustrate how making connections might be taught in a junior
classroom:
Teachers model how to mark the text while reading. Marking the text forces readers
to make connections with the reading. Students might use highlighters, sticky notes,
highlighting tape, jot-note strips, bookmarks, or other tools to mark the text (see
Coding the Text and Highlighting the Text in the appendix).
Teachers show their students how to use mentor texts. These are well-written texts,
previously read by the students, that they can refer to when they need to recall a
literary device or
text feature or remember how to apply a writing strategy.
That reminds me of...
Remember when
6.D
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
APPLICATION
This is really
important ...
So far, I have learned that ...
Students engage in a Place Mat exercise, first thinking individually about a topic
they have researched, and then reaching consensus within their small group about
the most significant information to put in the centre of the groups place mat (see
Place Mat in the appendix).
In a brainstorming exercise, students write ideas on sticky notes (placing one point
on each sticky note), and then categorize the ideas by putting the notes into piles
with similar ideas. This eliminates duplication and also helps the students to see
which ideas occurred most frequently, suggesting that these might be particularly
important considerations (see Brainstorming in the appendix).
Some of the text features that students can learn to look for and draw upon to find
important information include the following:
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
a biographical note about the author
footnotes
diagrams
focusing questions
definitions
sidebars
interesting facts or features
graphs
illustrations and/or captions
bolded terminology
text boxes
marginal notes
APPLICATION
APPLICATION
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
7.D
Effective writers check for clarity during the writing process, always referring back
to their purpose for writing. They ask themselves some of the following questions:
Is this piece of writing clearly conveying my message?
Have I used the most effective vocabulary?
Does my message come through early in my writing?
Will my readers be able to articulate the key message?
8.D
9.E
STABLISHINGAND
ONEAND
RITINGAND
Writers must take care that the tone of their writing is appropriate to the purpose, the
audience, and the genre within which they are writing. Writers also need to be aware
of how their own voice is developing and being reflected in their writing. Is their voice
10.Q
Literate learners pose questions before, during, and after reading and writing.
As they consider these questions, they continually sift and sort their ideas and
monitor their understanding in order to construct a deeper meaning from the
text. Questioning helps make the thinking process explicit. It can also clarify
the purposes for reading and writing, and can
strengthen
students involvement in the
text as they keep reading and writing to satisfy their wondering (Robb, 2000, p. 15).
In the junior grades, as students begin to develop their critical-literacy skills, they are
able to ask more complex questions that dig deeper for meaning. They learn the differ-
when they are motivated
what is obvious in the text. They are usually open ended and may have more than one
answer, or no clear answer at all. Such thick questions might include the following:
What is this authors intent?
Whose point of view is represented?
Whose voice is missing?
What am I feeling and why?
What does this writing mean to me?
Do I need to seek another perspective?
...? How
come ...? Why
...? Im
confused.
11.V
ISUALIZING
Visualizing is the ability to create mental images in order to see the action of the text.
Readers visualize as they read, and create pictures in their mind based on the authors
writing. Writers create passages that evoke, for the reader, images that enhance and
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
We must strive to create classrooms
that celebrate passionate curiosity.
APPLICATION
also refers to other senses such as touch, hearing, and smell. It is not
enough simply to suggest to students that they form visual images as they read or write.
It is ... important to explicitly identify the use of visual strategies to create mental
imagery as an essential part of reading. It helps readers to experience stories and other
text (Wilhelm,
2004, p. 57).
In a junior classroom, teaching visualizing might involve the following:
Teachers provide students with engaging texts (fiction and non-fiction) that inspire
students to create pictures in their minds.
Teachers read aloud to students while thinking aloud about the mental images that
the text creates in their own minds. Their comments might include:
I can see ...
The movie in my head shows ...
I visualize ...
Students listen to a piece of music or a passage from a text and then describe or
Students use a two-column note format to record their responses to a text, using
headings such as the following:
Quotation/passage from text versus Mental image
What is the text about? versus What I see
Words on the page versus My mental map of what happened
The teacher models how to create a piece of writing that stimulates the reader
to visualize.
12.S
In summarizing a text, students are asked to apply a number of thinking processes in
Literacy for Learning
, p. 70).
In writing, the ability to summarize can help students to clarify their own under-
and intent, and ensure that their message is clear and consistent.
Students might follow these steps to summarize a text passage:
1.Read for meaning.
2.Divide the reading into small parts.
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
Following are some other examples of how summarizing might be taught in a junior
classroom:
Students record jot notes during an inquiry exercise and then synthesize these into
a paragraph (see Jot Notes in the appendix).
Students and the teacher create a mind map summarizing what they know about
a topic (see Mapping in the appendix).
Guided by the teacher, students use a KWL chart (Know, Want to Know, Learned)
to organize their thinking about a new topic before and during a lesson, and to
summarize their learning after the lesson (see KWL in the appendix).
13.I
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
APPLICATION
APPLICATION
APPLICATION
APPLICATION
APPLICATION
APPLICATION
APPLICATION
14.P
Through prediction, students bring their personal experiences, prior knowledge, and
worldview to the text, both before and during reading. They may begin by considering
the title, cover, key words, and a partial reading of the whole text, and then use reasoning
Literacy for Learning
, p. 69).
The following examples show what instruction in predicting might look like in a
junior classroom:
15.S
I have learned...
Now I understand ...
Teachers model how to code the text as they read, using codes such as SZ for
information that needs to be synthesized, or a light bulb to show where a new idea
surfaces or where confusion is clarified (see Coding the Text in the appendix).
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
Students use a Venn diagram to sort and synthesize ideas before writing (see Mapping
Students discuss how their thinking evolves as they summarize a piece of text and
respond personally to it.
Students use a two-column note format to compare ideas or record
their responses to a text, with headings such as the following:
Direct quotation versus Personal response
Content versus Process
Facts from the text versus Responses
Synthesizing is also discussed later in this chapter, under Higher-Order Thinking.
16.E
VALUATING
Evaluating is both a higher-order thinking skill and a strategy for making meaning.
17.M
ONITORINGAND
EPAIRING
NDERSTANDING
Strategic communicators actively monitor their understanding and use fix-up strategies
when their understanding breaks down. Fix-up strategies help readers to repair compre-
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
APPLICATION
APPLICATION
when a new perspective or thought
2000, p. 144)
Talk is the foundation
for literacy.
visualizing (see strategy 11 in this section)
stopping and thinking about what you have written or already read
adjusting the pace slowing down or speeding up as appropriate
noticing patterns in the text
Does this make sense? Does that look right? Does that sound right?
Teachers model click or clunk as a way to self-monitor comprehension in a
non-fiction text. As they read through a passage, they constantly ask themselves
if the text makes sense. If it does not make sense, thats a clunk, and they need
to activate their fix-up strategies.
Students and teachers engage in dialogue about the text during the reading or writing
process
Students need to develop the habits of mind that will equip them to be successful in the
rapidly changing information age in which they live. They will need to think flexibly,
creatively, and independently as they solve problems related to increasingly complex
and unfamiliar scenarios. They will also need to develop a sense of responsibility, justice,
and fairness, as well as curiosity about their world. Teachers need to teach students
how to think about familiar topics in new ways, how to apply what they know to
new situations, and how to be persistent even if the task is difficult.
Higher-order thinking skills play a large role in helping students mature
as learners and communicators. All strategies for making meaning require
some form of higher-order thinking. By using a range of thinking skills,
students are able to draw more meaning from texts and apply their learning
in more sophisticated ways. That is why a key goal of the junior literacy
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
Critical-thinking and
critical-literacy skills are
in the global community.
Taxonomies of Higher-Order Thinking Skills
Several taxonomies (ways of classifying ideas and information) have been developed to
describe higher-order thinking. In 1956, Bloom and Kathwold developed a taxonomy
that divided thinking skills into six levels.
That original taxonomy was revised in 2001, in a text entitled
A Taxonomy for Learning,
Teaching, and Assessing
, edited by Anderson and Krathwohl. The revised taxonomy
involves two dimensions the Knowledge Dimension and the Cognitive Process
Dimension. The Knowledge Dimension consists of four kinds of knowledge: factual,
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
A Taxonomy to Promote Higher-Order Thinking
a coherentor fun
esis;
CREATE
EVALUATE
ANALYSE
APPLY
UNDERSTAND
(Adapted from
Literacy for Learning
, p. 33)
Anderson and Krathwohl point out that most authentic academic tasks require the
coordinated use of several cognitive processes as well as several types of knowledge (p. 89).
An example of a process that cuts across many of the categories in the knowledge and
cognitive process domains is critical thinking. To think critically about an issue involves
both conceptual knowledge and the analysis and evaluation of different perspectives
Teachers challenge students in the junior grades to engage in higher-order thinking at
various levels as they perform tasks and activities involving reading, writing, viewing,
representing, speaking, and listening. The following chart indicates the categories of
knowledge and cognitive processes involved in the performance of various tasks.
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
Application of the Revised Taxonomy
Task
Write a persuasive essay stating your opinion on ...
Knowledge Dimension/Cognitive Process
Factual and procedural knowledge/Create
Conceptual knowledge/Remember and understand
Thinking Skills
Well-founded and widely accepted research (e.g., Langrehr, 1988, pp. vvi) suggests
that students need to develop the following skills in order to become proficient
Focusing
involves directing ones attention to selected information. This can include:
defining a problem;
Information gathering
involves acquiring relevant information and data. This can
accessing prior knowledge;
observing and obtaining information through the senses;
questioning to obtain new information;
identifying and acknowledging sources.
Remembering
Organizing
involves arranging relevant information, data, ideas, and evidence so
they can be used more effectively. This can include:
comparing to note similarities and differences;
classifying to place information in groups by common attributes;
ordering or sequencing entities according to a given criterion.
Analysing
involves clarifying existing information such as data, ideas, or styles.
Generating
involves using prior knowledge to add new information. This can include:
inferring reasoning beyond available information to fill in gaps and thinking
carefully about conclusions drawn from statements read or heard;
predicting anticipating or forecasting future events;
elaborating using prior knowledge to add meaning to new information and
to link it to existing structures;
representing adding new meaning by changing the form of information.
Integrating
involves connecting and combining information. This can include:
summarizing abstracting information efficiently;
restructuring changing existing knowledge structures to incorporate new information.
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Synthesizing
involves integrating, connecting, and combining information.
listing the main/key points;
describing connections;
making a generalization from specific information.
Concluding
involves coming to a conclusion after processing the information.
stating an opinion;
selecting the best option;
solving a problem;
outlining a plan;
articulating a decision.
Evaluating
involves assessing the reasonableness and quality of a conclusion based
on established criteria. This can include:
establishing criteria for judging;
verifying information confirming the accuracy of claims;
identifying errors;
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
When students are
What do I already
know about this topic/author/audience?
intentionally selecting and applying thinking strategies (
Does this make sense?
Does this look right? Does this sound right? What am I writing about? What is
my main idea? What voice would best suit the audience?
monitoring ones own learning (
evaluating ones own learning (
What did I learn from reading/writing this selection?
What strategies did I use to help me understand what I read/wrote? What did I learn
about my reading/writing?
To help students deepen their understanding, teachers can create anchor charts with
prompting questions. Teachers can also work with students to create exemplars that
demonstrate effective responses, and post these exemplars beside the anchor charts
(see Anchor Charts in the appendix).
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
Helping Students Think Through the Reading Process
To help them think through the reading process, students can create a personal bookmark
of prompting questions, such as those listed below. Students can also create focusing
I was confused when ...
Words new to me are ...
When I read ..., I thought about ...
Questions I would ask if I were the teacher include ...
Questions I would like to ask the author are ...
APPLICATION
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
How do these help me understand the text?
What is the authors/creators intent?
Who is the audience?
represent my ideas? How do these help?
to my work?
enhance my work?
When I have difficulties writing, I...
representation) changed the way I think?
Am I actively trying to understand the speakers
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
The Expert Panel on Literacy in Grades 4 to 6 identified critical-literacy skills as essen-
tial for lifelong learning in the twenty-first century:
Students today experience a constant stream of ideas and information online,
in print, and through electronic games and mass media. As they move into the
junior grades, they encounter an ever-widening range of texts. They need skills
Literacy for Learning
, p. 9)
Critical literacy goes beyond conventional critical thinking because it asks
students to question the authority of texts and to explore issues of bias,
perspective, and social justice. In the multiliterate world of the twenty-first
century, it is not sufficient simply to teach students how to read at a
literal level. Students need to develop the ability to decipher critically
Shins Tricycle
by Tatsuharu Kodama (New York:
Walker and Co., 1995),
One More Border to Cross
by William Kaplan with Shelley
Tanaka (Toronto: Gr
Remember
by Toni Morrison (New York:
Houghton Mifflin, 2004) are exemplar
y books that promote
and inquiry.
(Kamler and Comber, 1997, p. 1)
critical-literacy skills are
in the global community.
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Questions for Literature Study
To promote the development of critical-
literacy skills in literature study, teachers
Can you guess the authors own view-
award-winning book?
What is the authors intent?
author used to influence the reader?
to shared, guided, and independent reading and writing.
Teachers need to encourage students to become critical analysts and questioners of text.
Texts are social constructions; they are never neutral.
graphical, and electronic media. Students learn to ask meaningful questions about the origin and
Guiding Principles for Teaching Critical Literacy in the Junior Grades
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
OOLSAND
Students of all ages are affected by the rapid development and widespread use of infor-
mation and communication technologies, such as word processors, e-mail, CD-ROMs,
Literacy for Learning
, p. 24).
Tomorrows citizens face greater reading demands than ever before. The written word
(Tovani, 2000 p. 110)
Instruction and practice in the use and evaluation of information and communication
technologies help to equip students with a range of knowledge and skills, including
how to:
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Bridging the Digital Divide
Todays junior students are exposed to, and conversant with, a wide range of media
electronic games;
However, not all students have access to these tools and resources outside of school,
and many of those who do are not using them effectively. This creates a digital divide
CHAPTER 2KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED FOR LITERACY
EVELOPMENTAL
TAGESFOR
A developmental continuum can be a helpful resource for planning instruction and
observing student learning. It describes the key knowledge, skills, and behaviours that
learners exhibit at various stages of literacy development. By plotting their students
*Reprinted from
First Steps Reading Developmental Continuum
First Steps Writing Developmental Continuum
First Steps Oral Language Developmental Continuum
(1994). These publications, including First Steps Professional
Development, are available from Pearson Canada, 26 Prince Andrew Place, Don Mills, Ontario.
E-mail: professionallearning@pearsoned.com.
Teachers can identify a childs phase of development by observing that the child is exhibiting
It should be noted, however, that most children will also display indicators from other phases.
displays reading-like behaviour
holding the book the right way up
turning the pages appropriately
looking at words and pictures
using pictures to construct ideas
realises that print carries a message but may read the writing differently each
time, e.g. when reading scribble to parents
focuses on the meaning of a television program, story or other text viewed,
listened to or read. Responses reflect understanding.
makes links to own experience when listening to or reading books, e.g. points
to illustration, saying My dog jumps up too.
uses pictorial and visual cues when watching television, listening to or reading
stories, i.e. talks about a television program, advertisement or picture in a
magazine or book, relating it to own knowledge and experience
recognises own name, or part of it, in print
encourage discussion and praise critical and divergent thinking
provide picture books with limited text that children can read to themselves
and others
re-read favourite stories and rhymes
share Big Books with children incidentally modelling reading behaviours
establish a language-rich environment, pr
contexts
read from an enlarged text (big book) so that children can follow the print as it
is read
Major Teaching Emphases
realises that print contains a constant message, i.e. that the words of a written
story remain the same, but the words of an oral story may change
is focused on expressing the meaning of a story rather than on reading words
accurately
uses prior knowledge of context and personal experience to make meaning,
e.g. uses memory of a text to match spoken with written words
recognises some personally significant words in context, e.g. in job roster,
weather chart or books
matches some spoken words with written words when reading a book or
environmental print
Major Teaching Emphases
share with children times when you challenge or disagree with a text
discuss instances of stereotyping in texts
VERVIEWOF
EVELOPMENTAL
In this phase readers display reading-like behaviour as they reconstruct stories for themselves. They show a natural interest i
In this phase readers use memory of familiar texts to match some spoken words and written words. They realise that print contai
ns a constant message and begin
pointing to words. They may comment on pictures, but seldom question written text.
Major Teaching Emphases
In this phase readers may read unfamiliar texts slowly and deliberately as they focus on reading exactly what is on the page. R
eaders are beginning to reflect on their own
Reprinted, by permission, from
First Steps Reading Developmental Continuum
foster childrens enjoyment of reading, encouraging them to explore
Phase 4: Transitional Reading
shows an ability to construct meaning by integrating knowledge of:
Major Teaching Emphases
create a climate which fosters critical thinking
help students to be aware of the view of the world presented by an author and
how this affects different people
discuss with students the effect of texts on their own attitudes and perceptions
can recognise and discuss the elements and purpose of different text structures,
e.g. reports, procedures, biographies, narratives, advertisements, dramas,
documentaries
reads and comprehends text that is abstract and removed from personal experience
makes inferences based on implicit information drawn from a text and can provide
justification for these inferences
Major Teaching Emphases
teach students to:
articulate their reading difficulties
discuss the questions they asked of the text and any questions that werent
answered
discuss how they solved problems
select and use appropriate strategies when reading for different purposes
praise and encourage students when they show evidence of critical reading,
listening and responding sensitively to their comments
teach students to identify and comment on different points of view in texts
establish a language-rich environment presenting print in natural and meaningful
contexts
provide opportunities for students to examine, analyse and discuss narrative and
expository texts
teach students to:
analyse topics/questions
generate self-questions
select appropriate texts and compile reference lists
summarise and take notes
organise responses for reporting
compile bibliographies
develop the students ability to read from a writers viewpoint and to write from
a readers viewpoint
Reading is purposeful and automatic. Readers are only aware of reading strategies being employed when encountering difficult te
xt or reading for a specific purpose. Readers
Teachers can identify a childs phase of development by observing that the child is exhibiting
It should be noted, however, that most children will also display indicators from other phases.
Major Teaching Emphases
model brief, imaginative and factual texts and explain the purpose and
help children build lists of high-frequency words from their reading
demonstrate the one-to-one correspondence of written and spoken words
discuss how writing can be used to communicate over time and distance
encourage children to talk about their experiences
help children understand how written texts are composed in sentences
help children develop a stable concept of a word
help children relate written symbols to the sounds they represent
VERVIEWOF
EVELOPMENTAL
Children are beginning to come to terms with a new aspect of language, that of written
symbols. They experiment with marks on paper with the intention of communicating
The Writer:
assigns a message to own symbols
understands that writing and drawing are different, e.g. points to words while
reading
is aware that print carries a message
The Writer:
reads back own writing
Major Teaching Emphases
Children write about topics which are personally significant. They are beginning to consider
audience needs. They have a sense of sentence but may only be able to deal with one or
two elements of writing at one time, e.g. spelling but not punctuation.
The Writer:
uses a small range of familiar text forms
chooses topics that are personally significant
uses basic sentence structures and varies sentence beginnings
can explain in context some of the purposes of using writing, e.g. shopping list or
experiments with words drawn from language experience activities, literature, media
and oral language of peers and others
begins to develop editing skills
attempts to use some punctuation
talks with others to plan and revise own writing
Reprinted, by permission, from
First Steps Writing Developmental Continuum
model good English language use
model writing every day
encourage students to reflect on their understandings, gradually
develop an awareness that writing is purposeful
Major Teaching Emphases
teach children to plan and write both narrative and informational texts
help children to adapt their writing to suit the intended purpose and to
explore alternative ways of expressing ideas
discuss linguistic features of basic text types
teach children appropriate use of organisational markers such as topic
sentences, paragraphs and headings
show different ways of linking paragraphs to form a whole text
The Writer:
uses text forms to suit purpose and audience
can explain why some text forms may be more appropriate than others to achieve a
writes a range of text forms including stories, reports, procedures and expositions
Phase 5: Proficient Writing
Major Teaching Emphases
provide opportunities for students to analyse, evaluate and structure an
extensivev
The Writer:
selects text forms to suit purpose and audience, demonstrating control over most essential
can explain the goals in writing a text and indicate the extent to which they were achieved
writes to define, clarify and develop ideas and express creativity, e.g. stories, poems, reports,
arguments
writes a topic sentence and includes relevant information to develop a cohesive paragraph
organises paragraphs logically to form a cohesive text
Major Teaching Emphases
Teachers can identify a childs phase of development by observing that the child is exhibiting
It should be noted, however, that most children will also display indicators from other phases.
Phase 2: Early Language
uses own grammar style which is an approximation of adult grammar
overgeneralisations are common, e.g.
pluralssheeps for sheep
verbsgoed for went
auxiliary verbsI did run fast
is beginning to develop awareness of listener needs and begins to provide
feedback information when introducing new topic, e.g. Nanna, I went
shopping. Look at this.
gives simple descriptions of past events
shows an interest in explanations of how and why
focus on language structures and patterns through songs, chants, rhymes
and stories
develop childrens ability to adjust their language to suit particular purposes,
encourage children to tell stories, recount experiences, describe ideas,
events and objects, report information and role play characters and
develop and extend childrens use of vocabulary in different contexts
help children to give and receive simple explanations, information and
Major Teaching Emphases
has grasped most grammatical rules but may still overgeneralise, e.g.
tensesswimmed for swam, keept for kept
pluralsmouses for mice
pronounsthey put the book in there
contributes appropriately to classroom interactions, showing or expressing
Major Teaching Emphases
focus on language structures and patterns through songs, chants, rhymes
and stories
provide opportunities to develop language through small-group and large-
group interaction
help children to learn through speaking and listening, e.g. formulating ideas,
classifying, comparing, giving and receiving instructions and explanations
VERVIEWOF
EVELOPMENTAL
In this phase childrens use of language becomes more refined and extended.
It is used to satisfy simple social needs and to gain control of objects, people
and knowledge in the environment.
In this phase, children already know a great deal about language. They use
Good morning everyone. Um, when I went to my Grandmas
Where is your Grandmas house?
No, not the roof. Its a building.
Phase 4: Emergent Language for Learning
Im going to tell you about yesterday when we went to the zoo. We went
I had a race with, um a tortoise and I won because I was faster, and ...
The speaker/listener:
Reprinted, by permission, from
First Steps Oral Language Developmental Continuum
provide models of correct English
ensure that students encounter a range of purposes, audiences and
allow time to practise the sounds, rhythms, words and structures
provide opportunities to listen and respond to stories, songs and poems
develop the language necessary to express an understanding of narrative
Major Teaching Emphases
Phase 5: Consolidated Language for Learning
communicates effectively by sharing ideas, offering advice, opinion
and information and reacting to the contributions of others
Major Teaching Emphases
help students to present factual information in a clear and logical way
help students to discuss increasingly complex issues taking others views
into consideration
Well, I think it was last Sunday and it was raining cats and dogs so for once my
The speaker/listener:
Phase 6: Extended Language for Learning
selects and sustains language and style appropriate to purpose, context and
audience e.g. formal, informal talk
Major Teaching Emphases
structure experiences that challenge students to select and use different styles
of language to suit a range of audiences and purposes
help students to develop proficient speaking and listening skills that focus
on clear speech, and a logical and sequential expression of ideas and under-
standings
promote the use of subject-specific vocabulary
include activities and resources that encourage students to reflect on the
... I generally had a good time and Im sure everyone else did as well, but I
certainly did find some things difficult at Pioneer World, particularly having
occurred there that we had a good laugh about ...
The speaker/listener:
Introduction
...........................................................................................................76
Effective Literacy Instruction Is Research Based
..................................................76
Brain-Compatible Learning ..............................................................................76
Higher-Order Thinking ...................................................................................78
Zones of Cognitive Development .....................................................................78
Scaffolding and the Gradual Release of Responsibility .....................................80
Effective Literacy Instruction Is Differentiated
.....................................................81
Focusing on the Student ...................................................................................82
Focusing on the Curriculum ............................................................................83
Using The Equalizer to Plan Differentiated Instruction ................................85
Strategies and Tools for Differentiated Instruction ...........................................87
Choosing Instructional Approaches ..................................................................88
The Importance of Explicit Instruction ............................................................90
Effective Literacy Instruction Is Collaborative
.....................................................92
The Importance of Talk ...................................................................................93
The Social and Emotional Environment ..........................................................94
Collaborative Learning .....................................................................................96
Student Groupings ...........................................................................................98
Routines to Support Learning ........................................................................100
Effective Literacy Instruction Leads to Learning That Is Transferable
and Enduring
......................................................................................................104
Integrating Literacy Learning Across the Curriculum .....................................104
Relevant and Authentic Literacy Instruction ..................................................105
Literacy Instruction, Inquiry Skills, and the Independent Learner ..................105
Planning Checklist for Effective Literacy Instruction
........................................107
Sample Lesson
Applying Literacy Skills to Content Area Subjects
(Grade 4: Provinces and Territories of Canada) ..........................109
RINCIPLESOF
The principles of effective literacy instruction discussed in this chapter highlight the
following key topics:
1.the contribution that current research on literacy instruction can make to program
design and literacy instruction;
Over many decades, theorists and researchers have studied ways to improve teaching
in order to enhance student learning. Effective literacy teachers explore relevant theories
and embrace recognized research in order to provide the most productive learning
environment and the best instructional practices for their students.
This section briefly describes the following concepts, which are highlighted in the
research and professional literature on learning:
brain-compatible learning
higher-order thinking
zones of cognitive development
scaffolding and the gradual release of responsibility
Brain-compatible learning, also known as brain-based learning, is an area of research
that strives to connect what teachers know about how students learn with what medical
researchers know about how the brain works. Although this is still an evolving field, it
provides important insights that support the effectiveness of certain teaching strategies
and approaches. The chart on page 77 summarizes some of the key insights from
current research.
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
The brain is a pattern seeker.
What Teachers Can Do
Teach students how to recognize patterns in language,
to what they already know.
Give timely, positive feedback.
hands-on activities. Limit lessons to five to ten minutes
Teach to develop higher-order thinking skills, critical-
Teachers who are aware of these findings about brain-compatible learning create
student-centred classroom environments that are orderly, flexible, supportive, and
inclusive and that encourage risk taking. They understand that students must feel
confident in their abilities and must approach all learning with a positive attitude
and an open mind that equips them to believe, Yes I can!
Research has shown that effective literacy instruction emphasizes higher-order thinking.
Cunningham and Allington (1999) highlight the importance of creating classrooms
where students discuss, summarize, evaluate, and compare ideas and information
throughout their reading and writing experiences.
Anderson and Krathwohls taxonomy of higher-order thinking (described in Chapter 2,
Knowledge and Skills Required for Literacy, p. 56) provides a framework for plan-
ning instruction that moves students beyond basic comprehension to points where
they are able to use ideas and information in practical, creative, and critical ways.
Students need opportunities to develop skills at all six levels of thinking described
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Anticipation Guides
Brainstorming
Coding the Text
Cubing
Double-Entry Journal
Focusing Questions
Four Corners
Graffiti
KWL
Literature Circles
Mapping
Questioning the Author
Ranking Ladder
Somebody Wanted ... But ... So
Think-Aloud
Think, Predict, Read, Connect
(TPRC)
Value Line
Walkabout
APPLICATIONS
The theory of zones of cognitive development was put forward by Lev Vygotsky, a
Russian theorist whose work on the nature of language and thought became influential
in North America in the 1970s. Vygotsky used the term zone of proximal development
to refer to the zone, just beyond the students independent level of achievement, where
learning can occur with the support of a knowledgeable teacher. He described it as
cyclical
begins in the zone of proximal development;
developmental
in the sense that each newly
acquired concept or skill advances the student
towards greater understanding and proficiency in
reading, writing, and oral/visual communication.
The following chart illustrates Vygotskys zones of cognitive development, and identifies
how teachers and students share responsibility in the learning process.
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
phenomenon. Everything counts every word,
(Lozanov, as discussed in DePorter, Reardon
and Singer-Nourie, 1999, p. 3)
The student internalizes
works independently.
This is what the student
New learning is not
It is important to assess
Teacher Responsibility
A teacher, peer, or
The student makes the
on the teachers help to
applying the learning
independently.
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Building on Vygotskys theory of the zone of proximal development, researchers have
developed the concepts of scaffolding and gradual release of responsibility.
most important approach to
(Strickland, Ganske, and
Monroe, 2002, p. 48)
Rosenshine and Meister (1992) describe six ways of providing scaffolded support to
help students develop higher-order thinking skills. They are:
presenting a new cognitive strategy
regulating difficulty during guided practice
varying the context for practice
providing feedback
increasing student responsibility
providing opportunities for independent practice
IFFERENTIATED
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
to students,teachers help
students improve the
Tomlinson (1995) states that there are four characteristics that mould teaching and
learning in an effective differentiated classroom:
1.Instruction is concept based and principle driven. All students
have the opportunity to explore and apply the key concepts
stand the key principles on which the study is based. Such
instruction enables struggling learners to grasp and use
powerful ideas and, at the same time, encourages advanced
the key concepts and principles. Such instruction stresses
Every child is entitled to the promise of a teachers enthusiasm, time, and energy. All chil-
potential every day.
(Tomlinson, 1999a, p. 5)
Effective literacy instruction
in a differentiated classroom:
is concept focused and
is based on ongoing
allows for flexible groupings
involves students in making
3.Flexible grouping is consistently used. In a differentiated class, students work in
are
, rather than where they should be. They realize that all students learn
at different rates, bring different skills and background knowledge to the classroom,
have different strengths and interests, and learn in different ways. Effective literacy
In planning how best to promote student success, teachers need to know
where their students are in order to move them to where they need to go next.
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Knowing the learners and
increase the chancesof
(Gregory and Chapman,
Effective teachers use the students interests to hook them into pursuing doable and
authentic tasks. They also strive to understand their students preferred modes of learning.
A students preferred mode of learning is influenced by many factors, including his
or her individual learning style, intelligences, gender, and culture (Tomlinson, 1999a;
Gregory and Chapman, 2002). Understanding the students mode of learning enables
teachers to discover how students learn best. With this information, teachers can teach
to the strengths of the students. Teachers can also share strategies to help students
progress in areas where they need support.
Teachers find out about their students preferred modes
of learning through a range of formal and informal
assessment strategies and tools, such as conferences,
surveys, and reading logs. Assessing students readiness
before learning and their progress during learning can
help teachers choose from a range of instructional
approaches, choices, and scaffolds, selecting those that
Differentiated instruction does not involve changing the concepts or goals of the
curriculum. Rather, it involves creating an equitable environment in which all students
are able to reach their potential and achieve the goals. To create this equitable environ-
ment, teachers consider ways to differentiate the content, instructional approaches,
student products and performances, and evaluation to allow all students to learn and
succeed. Teachers need to have high expectations for all students and at the same time
Curriculum Content
Differentiated content does not mean a watered-down curriculum for any student.
When selecting content, teachers begin with the curriculum expectations, addressing
the overall expectations and the most fundamental concepts and skills that their students
need to learn. They find ways to provide the essential information and practice that
will enable all students to acquire the same key information.
Teachers can differentiate the curriculum content in many ways, including the following:
Use many texts of all types, suited to different reading levels.
Provide time for accountable talk.
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
Differentiating instruction means
ways to absorb, use, develop, and
present concepts as a part of the daily
learning process. It allows students to
opportunities for peer, teacher and
(Theroux, 2004, p. 1)
Instructional Approaches (Processes)
According to Tomlinson, the process of learning starts when students begin to apply
skills and concepts. To differentiate the learning process/activities, teachers look at
alternative ways and means to scaffold learning. Some students may require structure
and chunking of large tasks, while others are able to succeed with a more open-
ended approach.
Teachers can differentiate their instructional approaches in many ways, including the
following:
Develop tasks at varying degrees of difficulty (but addressing the same goals).
Group students in various ways.
Student Products and Performance
Teachers who value and support differentiated learning realize that all students must
have multiple opportunities to demonstrate what they have learned. To do this, students
must have clear guidelines about what will be assessed.
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
APPLICATION
APPLICATION
As well, assignments must be designed so that
products and performances allow students to
demonstrate achievement of the curriculum
expectations. Well-designed tasks will include
checkpoints for students to see how they are
doing, and should assess both the process and the
end result. When performances are in the form of
of learning rather than rote memorization.
Teachers can differentiate products and performances in many ways, including
the following:
Provide multi-levelled tasks and materials.
Create and use rubrics.
Chunk tasks and use mini-lessons to share ideas for each component.
Allow for a number of ways for students to demonstrate their learning.
Tomlinson (1999a) has created an effective model, called The Equalizer, to guide
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
What is moderately challenging and motivating
may offer far too little challenge
(and therefore motivation) for a classmate. The
(Tomlinson, 1999a, p. 3)
APPLICATION
The Equalizer helps teachers to pinpoint a starting point for their students, based on
the students readiness. Following are the nine components of instruction, and the
1.Information or ideas are
when they are basic, straightforward, or close
to what is already known. They are
transformational
if they are tangible, can be physically manipu-
lated, or deal with specific events. They are
abstract
if they focus more on meanings,
3.Resources to solve a problem are
if they deal with one or few events or meanings,
perhaps in a big-picture way. They are
if they deal with multiple events or
if they require one (or few) steps, actions,
or applications. They have
when they require a greater number of steps,
5.Applications or insights may require
by asking students to apply ideas
greater leaps
more structured
when students require relatively more
more open
they involve relatively greater improvisation or decision making for students to
clearly defined
when the problem itself is not clearly
when the planning, design, and other considerations are
largely prescribed and modelled by the teacher. They become
more independent
the student takes more responsibility for planning, designing, monitoring, establishing
9.Pace of study and thought typically need to be relatively
slower
practice or to allow greater depth of study, or relatively
rationof
the essentials or to eliminate practice that is redundant for a given learner
(Tomlinson, 2004b; italics added).
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Strategies and Tools for Differentiated Instruction
Differentiated instruction is inclusive by nature; that is,
most of the strategies that teachers use to differentiate
the learning are intended to span all abilities. However,
some strategies work particularly well for students who
are currently struggling, while others may best suit
those who are ready for enriched learning opportunities.
Differentiating instruction for these students helps
them to engage in the learning and reach their potential
with increased satisfaction and decreased frustration.
Struggling learners often require more guided practice and support from the teacher
before they attempt tasks independently. As Strickland, Ganske, and Monroe observe,
Struggling learners, in particular, need guided instruction that helps to make assigned
tasks transparent to them. They dont function well in classrooms where there is a
heavy emphasis on merely giving assignments and little emphasis on techniques such
as modelling and coaching (2002, p. 47).
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
Tasks
FoundationalTransformational
(Source: Adapted from Tomlinson, 1999a, pp. 121122)
easier for childrenis
who are experiencing difficulty.
(Strickland, Ganske, and Monroe,
Like all learners, these students benefit from instruction and activities that tap into
their interests and preferred learning styles, and that allow for some choice. Keeping
in mind that modelling and coaching are keys to success, teachers may find the
following strategies, which are described in the appendix, particularly beneficial
for struggling learners:
Contracts
Independent Projects
Learning Buddies
Another beneficial strategy, Collaborative Learning, is described later in this chapter
Learners who need enrichment benefit from differentiation that provides challenging
extra
work when what students need is
different
work
that allows for deeper learning.
Keeping in mind the students learning strengths, and the motivating power of choice,
teachers may find the following strategies, described in the appendix, particularly
beneficial for students who require enrichment:
Contracts
Curriculum Compacting
Independent Projects
Literature Circles
Tiered Assignments
Choosing Instructional Approaches
Teachers select instructional approaches based on information
obtained from assessments. Then through planned and purposeful
literacy instruction, they help their students to develop the knowledge
and skills they need to become strategic, motivated, and independent
learners. The principles of scaffolding and gradually releasing respon-
sibility to the student give teachers a way to think about how best
to match their instructional approaches to the students current
development, with the aim of preparing the students to use their
new knowledge and skills independently (Wilhelm, 2001).
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS
work. Teaching involves showing
(Literacy for Learning, p. 39)
Although teachers use many different instructional approaches and tactics with their
students, the present guide highlights four key approaches that teachers can use, sepa-
rately and in combination, to move students towards independence in the classroom:
modelling (including read-aloud and modelled writing); shared practice; guided practice;
and independent practice. The following chart shows that these four approaches provide
a range of options for scaffolding new learning and gradually releasing responsibility
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
Teachers do not necessarily use the key instructional approaches in a linear fashion,
always starting with modelling; rather, they select the approach that matches the
students learning needs for the specific lesson or task. During any of these approaches,
the teacher might interrupt the reading or writing activity to offer explicit instruction or
a mini-lesson on an important concept (see The Importance of Explicit Instruction,
Following is a brief overview of the key instructional approaches.
Modelling:
The teacher shows how an experienced reader or writer reads a text or
performs a writing task. For example, in a read-aloud activity, the teacher demonstrates
expressive, fluent reading, and might think aloud at certain points to demonstrate how
Shared Practice:
Modelled Writing
Shared Writing
Guided Writing
Independent Writing
High Teacher
Low Teacher
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Guided Practice:
The students have an opportunity to apply new concepts, skills, or
strategies previously taught during read-aloud, modelled writing, and shared reading and
writing sessions, thus moving closer to independence. At this stage, the teacher is still
actively engaged with the students conferring, providing feedback, and intervening as
required. The students share their thinking processes with the teacher and each other in
order to consolidate their understanding. Students can practise the reading or writing
strategy in pairs and interact in small flexible groupings. Accountable talk is an essential
component at this stage of learning. Guided practice sessions provide opportunities for
Independent Practice:
This occurs after the students have had ample time to practise a
new strategy with support from both the teacher and one another. While gradually giving
the students more responsibility for their learning, the teacher still provides support
and feedback as needed. The students receive individual feedback and praise for their
and to one another. Accountable talk remains a key component at this stage of learning.
Following independent practice, students are ready to apply their learning to a new genre,
format, or situation. As students are faced with more challenging situations, they reflect
and draw on prior learning and effectively apply the strategy to a new situation. At this
stage, the teacher does an assessment of the learning demonstrated in each students work
The Importance of Explicit Instruction
Explicit instruction refers to the clear, direct, and purposeful teaching of specificknowl-
edge, skills, and strategies. It is usually a par
shared
it can also occur as a planned or spontaneous part of a guided or independent activity
whenever the teacher sees a need to introduce or clarify a concept.
Beers (2003) emphasizes the importance of explicit instruction
for helping students to develop as readers, writers, and speakers.
She notes that explicit instruction takes the guesswork out of what
teachers want students to learn. Strategies, skills, and concepts are
taught explicitly and directly. Explicit instruction helps students to
understand that effective readers and writers consciously plan the
ideas effectively.
leads to improved
Differentiated Instruction
To learn more about differentiated
The Report of the Expert Panel on
for Students With Special
Education Needs, Kindergarten to
Grade 6, 2005
Ontario Ministry of Education.
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
Roles for the Teacher and Students in the Key Instructional Approaches
AND APPLICATION
Teachers Role
Teacher Does
identifying the specific strategy
explaining why students are learn-
ing the strategy, and when and
showing how to do it
thinking aloud while demonstrating
Teacher Does
thinking aloud
modelling
leading the discussion
explaining
involving students
Teacher Structures and Supports
observing
scaffolding
clarifying
giving feedback
encouraging
Teacher Watches
observing and monitoring
conferring
assessing
Students Watch
listening
observing
thinking
making connections
listening and participating
identifying where and when the
attempting the new learning
using the strategy
thinking aloud and talking about
solving problems
correcting
critically analysing the achievement
using the strategy independently
applying the learning
directing own activity
thinking aloud to demonstrate
assessing own work
reflecting
STUDENTS ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT ZONE OF ACTUAL DEVELOPMENT
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Explicit instruction can take the form of mini-lessons short, focused lessons on a
specific skill or strategy. In these lessons, teachers focus on one or two key strategies
or skills that students need to know. Repeatedly and over time, the teacher instructs
students through direct modelling and support. At times, the teacher highlights these
concepts and skills for students by expressing them aloud.
OLLABORATIVE
(Literacy for Learning, p. 28)
plays an important role in strengthening literacy
instruction. As professionals, we recognize that our colleagues ESL teachers, special
. To create a
productive community of learners, teachers carefully consider
the following in their planning and in their daily interactions
the importance of talk
the social and emotional environment
collaborative learning
student groupings
routines to support learning
APPLICATION
The Importance of Talk
Because junior students are generally social by nature, they enjoy sitting with others and
sharing experiences. Teachers capitalize on this in the junior grades by providing multiple
opportunities to engage in accountable talk. Talk not only promotes intellectual devel-
opment, it also helps students to develop a sense of community and instils a sense of
belonging (Cole, 2003). Throughout the junior grades, students learn to use talk to solve
problems, refine their thinking, connect to the ideas
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
Involving Second-Language
Learners in Classroom Talk
learners to
experience a sense of belonging and to
build confidencein
Teachers who understand the value of accountable talk provide time throughout the
day for students to interact with their peers. To facilitate this interaction, they organize
the classroom so that students can easily converse with one another without having to
move their desks or speak loudly. Creating small groups of desks or having small groups
of students sitting around a table facilitates participation in conversation. Small-group
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Book Talks
Carousel
Four Corners
Graffiti
I Message
Inside-Outside Circle
Jigsaw
Listening To and Learning From My Peers
Literature Circles
Place Mat
Questioning the Author
Ranking Ladder
APPLICATIONS
For more information about oral communication as a foundation for literacy learning,
see page 31 of Chapter 2, Knowledge and Skills Required for Literacy.
The Social and Emotional Environment
When students feel supported and respected by their teachers and
peers, they are more likely to welcome new tasks and challenges with
confidence. In
Reading With Meaning
(2002), Miller suggests that,
by establishing bonds and relationships
early in September
,the teacher
lays the foundation for a caring and respectful learning community
throughout
the year.
It is important for students to bond not only with the teacher but
also with each other. This bonding requires time for students to
creativity, and learning styles all
behaviour.
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
When problems arise, teachers respond immediately, either by speaking privately
Creating a Caring Community
Treat them and their families with respect.
Act kindly toward them.
Provide optimal learning conditions.
Make sure they succeed from the very first day.
Value them as individuals.
(Routman, 2003, p. 12)
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Ensure that the class literacy resources reflect different interests, including gender-
A key strategy for building a learning community is to incorporate collaborative learning
into daily activities. Collaborative learning (also called cooperative learning) is an
APPLICATIONS
Collaborative learning does not replace good teaching; it usually follows it. When it
is well managed, collaborative learning can be a powerful way to motivate students
and provide them with peer support as they engage in inquiry, debriefing, and the
consolidation of skills, concepts, and strategies. It also provides the teacher with a
Individual accountability/personal responsibility:
Each group member is held
responsible for his or her own learning, as well as for the learning of the other group
members. In the end, each member is held responsible for the outcome. Each student
is held accountable as a productive member of the group, and cannot easily opt out
or hitchhike along the way. When teachers ignore this element of collaborative
learning, they increase the likelihood that students will be unable to work effectively
in groups, and student achievement is likely to decline. Students must understand
Positive interdependence:
The group must establish a common goal that is both
clear and meaningful, and all members must make a commitment to its successful
achievement. Johnson and Johnson cite other types of positive interdependence, but
identify having a common goal as the most important type for the success of a group.
Use of collaborative skills:
It is vital to teach students collaborative skills in school,
Face-to-face interaction and positive feedback:
The teacher ensures that the
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
Processing of the group effort and the results:
At the end of each collaborative
learning lesson, students need time to discuss, describe, and reflect on the academic
and collaborative success of the group, its individual members, and the whole class.
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Student Groupings
Book Talks
Brainstorming
Carousel
Four Corners
Graffiti
Jigsaw
Learning Buddies
Listening To and Learning From My Peers
Literature Circles
Place Mat
Ranking Ladder
Roundtable
Study Guide Project
Tea Party
Value Line
Walkabout
Group Size
APPLICATIONS
Students need opportunities to experience collaborative learning in flexible and dynamic
the task and the needs of all the students. Teachers continually assess their students
the interaction and feedback that [are] essential for the development of effective
(Literacy for Learning, p. 40)
The size of a group can have a significant impact on
the learning of its members. According to Marzano,
Pickering, and Pollock (2001), groups with more
than five members are less effective than smaller
groups. If students have had little experience with
working in groups, it is essential that they begin
working in pairs and work their way up to larger
groups over time.
Group Formation
Group Duration
Johnson and Johnson (1999) identified three types of collaborative learning groups:
Informal groups.
These can be created on the spot and usually last for no more
than a few minutes during class time. See the descriptions of groups for Think/
Timed-P
air-Share or I
nside-Outside Circle in the appendix.
Formal groups.
These are designed to last for longer periods of time, such as
several days or weeks. The learning opportunities provided must be carefully
designed by the teacher to incorporate the five basic elements described above
under Collaborative Learning (pages 9798).
Base groups.
These may last for a term or the full school year. An example of the
base-group approach is Tribes Learning Communities (TLC), created by Jeanne Gibbs
(see Gibbs, 2001), which explicitly supports teachers through the process of creating
a safe and respectful learning environment for all students. Developing group
cohesiveness takes time, but when students realize that they will be spending long
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
(Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock,
APPLICATIONS
A ... classroom that succeeds cannot be one
all the time nor can it be one in which children
groups
Routines to Support Learning
Clearly established rules and routines enable teachers to maximize
the time available for effective instruction and practice and to
minimize interruptions. Teachers begin explicit instruction in, and
modelling of, these rules and routines in September and continu-
ously reinforce them throughout the year. It is important to keep
in mind, however, that rules and routines are most successful over
the long term if students are involved in establishing them.
Routines based on established expectations of classroom behaviour
help students to know what to expect and what is expected of them,
so that they are able to focus on learning. Routines encourage
students to take an active role in the learning community, to
exercise their choices responsibly, to manage time effectively,
and to move forward in addressing their goals.
Routines may be established for a wide range of classroom activities, but it is important
for the expectations for behaviour to be similar in all routines. Students are more likely
Consistency of Routines Across Subjects and Grades
When all teachers of the junior grades in a school establish and use similar routines,
students quickly learn what is expected of them. Consistency across subjects and
grades expands students sense of comfort, builds their self-assurance, and promotes
an environment where they feel comfortable taking risks in their learning.
Teachers use explicit instruction and modelling to convey their expectations for working
collaboratively and sharing the classroom space. These include expectations for:
using and maintaining classroom and school resources (such as anchor charts, word
walls, book displays, reference books, sign-out systems for classroom resources and
the school library);
organizing and maintaining the students own work spaces, storage spaces, and
surroundings;
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Time invested in the introduction
2003, p. 13.22)
Teaching responsibility for choices
teachers develop a deeper,
broader,more reflective
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Teaching Social, Communication, or Critical-Thinking Skills
1.Choose one skill.
attentive listening
asking for help or giving help
asking questions or responding
giving instructions or following
disagreeing politely or respond-
planning
making suggestions or responding
asking for reasons or giving
paraphrasing to show under-
asking for feedback or giving
checking accuracy
checking understanding
persuading others
summarizing
compromising
reflecting on experience
Structuring Collaborative Learning Lessons
Collaborative learning requires deliberate planning, explicit teaching, and multiple
opportunities to practise, in order for students to have successful experiences. The
gradual-release-of-responsibility model, which includes teacher modelling, followed
by shared and guided practice, and leading to independent participation, ensures that
students clearly understand what is expected of them during collaborative learning
sessions. The Sample Lesson at the end of this chapter demonstrates how teachers
can use collaborative learning to enhance academic learning.
3.Model the skill. Ask for student volunteers to help model the skill. Show both yes and no examples of the skill.
4.Practise the skill before using it in the collaborative groups. Role play scenarios as a whole class and present
5.Practise and apply the skill in established collaborative groups. Some teachers find it useful to rotate students
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
2.Use a T-Chart to discuss what the skill will look like and sound like. For example,:
One person talks at a time.
Listeners look at the speaker.
Listeners try to be aware of their own listening.
Listeners acknowledge the message
messenger.
Listeners nod heads to signal understanding or
Listeners try to see with their ears, hear with
their eyes.
Listeners are silent and attentive.
Words
One voice only, silence/listening from others
Listeners ask probing questions and paraphrase
What do you mean by
...?
To build on your idea
That is very interesting, Zera. James, what is
PARAPHRASER
GATEKEEPER
draws out the reluctant student
attempts to motivate the team
encourages all members to participate
shows appreciation through positive comments after people have spoken
checks for understanding
clarifies ideas
equalizes participation
shuts the gate for one and opens it for another
writes down group decisions and answers
6.Process group implementation of the skill (see the Collaborative Learning Group Assessment form,
on pages 113114, at the end of the Sample Lesson).
7.Once the skill is mastered, introduce a new skill.
8.Repeat the cycle.
Teaching Social, Communication, or Critical-Thinking Skills
EADSTO
HAT
RANSFERABLEAND
Literacy skills are
transferable
in that they help students to learn in all areas of the
curriculum throughout their school years. Literacy skills are
in that they are
important life skills that will help students to succeed personally and professionally
throughout their lives.
Integrating Literacy Learning Across the Curriculum
Students use literacy strategies and skills in all subject areas at school.
In the junior grades the literacy demands increase dramatically. Students
are expected to read and write more independently and more often,
to read longer and more difficult texts in different subject areas, and
to assume more responsibility for independent study and learning.
They are asked to remember more information; to explore, summarize,
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
are best developed in all areas
2002b, p. 5)
Effective teachers understand that, in order for learning to be enduring, it must be
meaningful and relevant to students. Instruction needs to be centred on authentic
learning experiences, engaging students in activities that have meaning and substance,
and that promote wonder and inquiry. Students need to see the value in what they are
learning and understand how it applies to their lives.
When students see that they are writing or reading for a real purpose, they are more
likely to be fully and actively engaged. For example, in a persuasive writing lesson,
Literacy Instruction, Inquiry Skills, and the Independent
An integrated approach to literacy instruction allows students to practise
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
Authentic literacy experiences
and attitudes that will serve
and improve the quality of
or confirmation, and
(Fountas and Pinnell,
Students who have strong inquiry skills will be able to find whatever information
they need in order to achieve their goals. Regardless of the format the information
is packaged in, they will be able to apply their inquiry and thinking skills in order
to find and process what they need and respond constructively.
Explicit teaching of the inquiry process is part of the curriculum in most subjects.
In addition, teachers can model the process of inquiry for students. As they work
to improve their own practice, teachers can share with students the purpose of the
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
students learn a wide range of
(Fountas and Pinnell,
HECKLISTFOR
SSESSMENTFOR
of this lesson/unit?
of the school context?
Have I considered readiness, interest, and learner profiles, including diverse life
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
HECKLISTFOR
in my class?
Do I have a balance of teacher-guided, student-guided, compulsory, and differentiated
Have I planned on using a taxonomy of higher-order thinking for critical questioning
while creating the final product?
Are products varied in means of expression, difficulty/complexity, and evaluation?
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
transferable to other content
CURRICULUM EXPECTATIONS
8, 2004
the chief natural resources of each.
(Grade 4: Provinces and Territories of Canada)
and complex questions
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
MATERIALS/TEACHER PREPARATION
MODIFICATIONS AND ACCOMMODATIONS
and dual-language books.
DAY 1
Academic goal: to gain knowledge of the provinces and territories of Canada by using an
Social goal: attentive listening (Attentive listening is essential to accountable talk. Students
this social goal look like? What does this social goal sound like? Tell the class that they
other the name of one of the provinces or territories of Canada.
names on chart paper.
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
DAY 2
either a fact or opinion, in the second column.
record in the second column any questions you may have about the province or territory
group has recorded in the Question column to those that are of most interest to their peers.
DAY 3
Remind them to refer to the resource listed in the Search column of their Fact/Question/
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
question on their groups Fact/Question/Search/Learning chart, or to help others conduct
following procedure. Each student shares with the group, in his or her own words, the answers
DAY 4
way to present their research to the class. Tell the groups to include in their presentation
DAY 5
large-group discussion about the information that is posted in the Learning column of the
sticky notes. Tell the students that ideas may not be repeated, so they must listen attentively.
(Students might use the Collaborative Learning Group Assessment form that follows.)
The teacher reflects on how successful students were in using the inquiry process and in working
CHAPTER 3PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION
Date:____________________________
Group Members
Roles
Todays Group Goal:
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
1. We made certain that all
2. All group members used
the time wisely.
3. We respectfully listened
to all group members.
4. We shared the work fairly
5. All group members helped
Introduction
.........................................................................................................117
Skill-Building Strategies and Tools
......................................................................117
Anchor Charts ................................................................................................117
Anticipation Guides .......................................................................................118
Book Talks .....................................................................................................119
Brainstorming ................................................................................................120
Car Wash .......................................................................................................120
Carousel .........................................................................................................121
Coding the Text .............................................................................................121
Contracts ........................................................................................................123
Cubing ...........................................................................................................126
Curriculum Compacting ................................................................................126
Double-Entry Journal .....................................................................................127
Extended Name Tags ......................................................................................128
Focusing Questions ........................................................................................129
Four Corners ..................................................................................................129
Graffiti............................................................................................................129
Highlighting the Text .....................................................................................130
I Message ....................................................................................................130
Independent Projects ......................................................................................131
Inside-Outside Circle .....................................................................................131
Jigsaw .............................................................................................................132
Jot Notes ........................................................................................................132
KWL (Know, Want to Know, Learned) ..........................................................133
Learning Buddies ...........................................................................................133
Listening To and Learning From My Peers .....................................................134
Literature Circles ............................................................................................134
Mapping ........................................................................................................136
Multiple Intelligences Survey 1 ......................................................................137
Multiple Intelligences Survey 2 ......................................................................139
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
can use in the junior classroom to help their students develop as strategic, motivated,
and independent readers, writers, talkers, listeners, and thinkers in all subjects. It is a
gathering place for practical strategies suggested throughout this volume. The topics
TRATEGIESAND
HARTS
Anchor charts outline procedures or processes. They provide a quick reference that can
help students to develop independence in the classroom. For example, an anchor chart
might describe the stages of the writing process, the procedures and roles for literature
circles, examples of capitalization, parts of speech, or reading/thinking strategies.
Anchor charts are generated by the teacher
and students, and are posted where the
students can see them while they work.
They are open ended so that students or
teachers can expand on them, as required.
Anchor charts are useful as a tool for
learning. The accompanying list, When
toAbandon a Book, is an example of
an anchor chart.
When to Abandon a Book
The book is too easy.
I dont understand the story/information.
I find it boring.
I cant relate to the characters.
The vocabulary is too difficult.
The font is too small.
The story didnt hook me.
I dont like the authors style.
I am uncomfortable with the authors style.
NTICIPATION
Anticipation guides are graphic organizers that help students to activate their prior
knowledge on a topic, concept, theme, genre, author, or other point of interest. The
framing of the statements on the anticipation guide stimulates interest and provides a
purpose for reading. An anticipation guide consists of a number of written statements
that support or challenge student beliefs and experiences about the topic of study and
that are tied to a selected text. Students read and react to the sentences, indicating on
Has your opinion
changed after reading the text? Why or why not? Where did the text deepen your under-
standing about the topic, genre, theme, or other point of interest?
Following are two examples of anticipation guides. Example 1 is for the novel
Breadwinner
, by Deborah Ellis (Toronto: Groundwood, 2002). This book is about a
young girl and her family struggling to survive under the Taliban rule in Afghanistan.
Example 2 uses a slightly different format. This one is for a non-fiction book,
Whats
Your Opinion?
Sample Anticipation Guides
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Agree/Disagree
Agree/Disagree
People who dont live in a country have no right to interfere
with events in that country.
Agree/Disagree
Agree/Disagree
Book talks (see Fountas and Pinnell, 2001, p. 120) are a great way for students to share
their thoughts and feelings about a text. They provide students with opportunities to
learn about a new author or text form, share critical insights about a text, read and
discuss a particularly interesting passage, or introduce their peers to one of their own
favourite texts.
Teachers should begin by demonstrating a book talk for their students. They then
deconstruct the talk with the students. As a group, they identify what constitutes a
good talk, as well as the procedure for doing a talk. Once these ideas have been charted,
anchor charts are posted to ensure that students are equipped to succeed with their
own book talks.
Sample Anchor Chart
Example 2: Whats Your Opinion?
Before ReadingStatements
It is not a crime to enter someones house without permission.
Borrowing things without permission is okay.
People should have the right to post No Trespassing signs.
YouAuthor
How to Give a Book Talk
Look at everyone.
Use your voice to hold the attention of the audience.
Talk about the characters, theme, problem, or main points.
Share relevant, thought-provoking insights or information.
Share a small excerpt or relevant illustration.
(Adapted from Fountas and Pinnell, 2001, p. 121)
RAINSTORMING
Brainstorming is a powerful way to generate ideas and encourage collaboration and
creative thinking. The teacher asks the students to think of ideas about a specific topic.
All ideas are accepted without judgement. Anything goes especially different, original,
Sample Brainstorming Web
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
b
ing
n
ts
u
les
u
ipme
n
t
Tips
n
owboa
r
de
r
s
The Car Wash (Gibbs, 2001) is a wonderful self-esteem builder that can be used both
Your
writing made me laugh
I really like your artwork
AROUSEL
Carousel is a way to exchange ideas among small groups and promote collaborative
learning. Students work in groups. One student in each group remains in place as
a designated speaker for the group, while the other members of the group rotate to
each of the other groups, on signal from the teacher, to listen to the other designated
speakers. This occurs in a rotational sequence with all the groups in the class. Carousel
is highly effective in the content areas as a way for students to demonstrate their
understanding and share information.
ODINGTHE
Coding (or marking) the text helps readers to hold onto their thinking and actively
engage with the text. Students work individually and then share in groups. The teacher
models how to code the text and discusses with the class why it is important to code
or mark the text during reading. (Also see Highlighting the Text in this appendix.)
Sample Symbols for Coding the Text
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
T-S
=Text-to-self connections
T-T
=Text-to-text connections
T-W
=Text-to-world connections
=Interesting or important information in the text
=Learnings for life
Questioning the Text
=Confused about the text
=Clear about the text
=See the readers question on a sticky note or bookmark
=Inference (see the readers explanation on a sticky note)
=Prediction
=Inference or prediction is confirmed by the text
=Inference or prediction is contradicted by the text
=Synthesize
=New idea surfaces; confusion is clarified
=I just dont understand anymore!
ONTRACTS
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Contract with _______________________________________________________
Title of Unit/Task: ___________________________________________________
Due Date: __________________________________________________________
Product/Presentation Goal: ___________________________________________
Time Management Commitment: ___________________________________________________________
Process Commitment: _____________________________________________________________________
Task Requirements:
Create a rhyming wheel.
Use the words from language and word study
Write about you.
Use good descriptive words in a poem that
How to Eat a Poem by Eve Merriam*
Read it.
Illustrate it.
Summarize it.
Write about what it means.
*From Rose H. Agree,
How to Eat a Poem and Other
Morsels
(New York: Pantheon Books, 1967)
Reflection: ______________________________________________________________________________
Next Steps: ______________________________________________________________________________
Contract with _______________________________________________________
Title of Unit/Task: ___________________________________________________
Due Date: __________________________________________________________
Product/Presentation Goal: ___________________________________________
Time Management Commitment: ___________________________________________________________
Process Commitment: _____________________________________________________________________
Task Requirements:
Create a rhyming wheel.
Use the words from language and word study
Write about you.
Use good description, figurative language, and
Unfolding Bud by Naoshi Koriyama*
Read it.
Paraphrase it.
Explain what it helps you to understand
Reflections on a Gift of Watermelon Pickle ... and
OtherM
odern Verse
, compiled by Stephen Dunning,
Edward Lueders,
Scholastic, 1968)
Reflection: ______________________________________________________________________________
Next Steps: ______________________________________________________________________________
Gregory and Chapman (2002) describe an instructional technique called Cubing
that helps students think at various levels by encouraging discussion about a topic
from six points of view. On each side of the cube is an instruction associated with
one of the six levels of thinking (see Higher-Order Thinking, page 55 in Chapter 2,
Knowledge and Skills Required for Literacy). Students roll the cube and respond
according to the prompt on the face of the cube.
The following shows a plan for constructing a cube.
Cubing (Template)
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
n
alyse it
Describe it
Compare it
n
alyse it
Apply it
Argue for
or agai
n
st it
URRICULUM
OMPACTING
When students demonstrate proficiency with the skills and concepts identified in the
NTRY
The double-entry journal format (also called two-column note form) provides a
Sample Double-Entry Journal
blue with ten drops of yellow, I got green.
I built my structure using triangle shapes
structure broke when we put the brick on it.
world, and the side supports are all triangle
his is like the article I read about why
AGS
Extended Name Tags (Gibbs, 2001) is a great activity to use early in the school year
or in preparation for a change in groupings.
Distribute a card or name tag and ask students to do the following (see template):
1.Write your name in the centre.
2.In the upper left corner, write your favourite place in the world.
I liked it when ...
I admired
how you said ...
Extended Name Tag (Template)
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Your favourite place
A person who taught you
A focusing question guides the search for meaning. It provides a lens to focus the
students thinking about a lesson or unit of study. An effective focusing question is
open ended and thought provoking. It engages the students in higher-order thinking
and leads to enduring understanding about the subject or the learning process. Focusing
questions can be posed by the teacher or formulated by the students (see Questioning,
pages 4950
in Chapter 2, Knowledge and Skills Required for Literacy).
1.Label the four corners of the classroom with four points of view (for example, Agree,
Strongly Agree, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree).
2.Pose a question to the whole class.
3.Invite each student to go to the corner that best reflects his or her opinion about the
question. Ask the students to share the reason for their choice with others in their
corner possibly in smaller subgroups to ensure that everyone has an opportunity
Graffiti is a collaborative activity that provides students with opportunities to
brainstorm ideas, express their opinions and understanding about a topic, and make
connections to their prior knowledge and experiences. Students work in groups to
generate and record their ideas on chart paper. The strategy provides a safe environment
for sharing information. It also allows students to build on the ideas of others.
1.Before the lesson, decide how many groups there will be for the activity and then
3.After a short interval (two minutes) direct the students to rotate to the next chart
page. Continue this process until everyone has been at each piece of paper.
4.Assign one group to each of the chart pages and tell them to do the following:
Read the information on the chart.
Cluster the related ideas.
Eliminate duplication.
Reach a consensus about the main points that clearly represent the small groups
Appoint a spokesperson to share the main points with the whole group.
IGHLIGHTINGTHE
Highlighting the text (see also Coding the Text in this appendix) is a technique that
actively engages a reader in making connections with the reading. Students may use
highlighters, sticky notes, highlighting tape, jot-note strips, bookmarks, or other aids
to highlight the text. Tov
with the text and make connections with what they are reading.
For example:
Look carefully at the first and last line of each paragraph.
Highlight only necessary words and phrases.
ESSAGE
The I Message (Gibbs, 2001) helps students to engage in accountable talk by
providing them with an alternative way to express their anger in more socially
appropriate ways.
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
4.Model how you can turn these judgemental statements into an I statement.
For example:
An unacceptable statement might be:
You idiot! You spilled all of our blue paint
and now we cant finish!
An acceptable I statement might be:
5.Continue to practise and reinforce I messages.
NDEPENDENT
ROJECTS
Independent projects are important for both struggling learners and those needing
to enhance the depth and breadth of their learning. Because they give students the
freedom to choose, independent projects can be a strong motivator.
For
students needing to enhance the depth and breadth of their learning
pendent study allows for in-depth exploration of a topic of particular interest. Teachers
may help the students to plan their objectives or develop their process for investigation.
These students are still developing as strategic literacy learners, and so it is important
struggling learners
, teachers will need to provide scaffolded support for example,
to help plan the objective and develop a process for investigating the topic. Establishing
frameworks and checkpoints and providing ongoing feedback will help to ensure that
struggling students succeed. In addition, students should be encouraged to select a
product or performance task that best reflects their learning strengths and style.
The topic Performance Tasks for Multiple Intelligences, later in this appendix, lists a
sampling of performance tasks that are suited to particular learning strengths or multiple
intelligences of students. These tasks can form the basis for independent classroom work
or more formal projects. All of the tasks may require intentional teaching as well as
guided, modelled, or scaffolded support especially for struggling learners. (For more
on multiple intelligences, see pages 2223 in Chapter 1, The Junior Learner.)
UTSIDE
IRCLE
1.Direct students to find a partner and number themselves One or Two.
2.Direct all Number Ones to stand in a circle facing out. Have Number Twos stand
facing their partner.
3.Pose a question and provide think time.
4.Have Partner One share his or her answer or solution with Partner Two and then
signal when he or she is finished by saying
Pass
. Partner Two paraphrases what
Partner One said, and then adds his or her own response, which Partner One then
Either
direct new partners to share responses
pose a new question. Repeat the
process (steps 4 to 6).
IGSAW
Jigsaw is a collaborative learning activity that gives students the opportunity to learn
about a topic and then share their learning with others. It is an effective way to process
large chunks of text in a short time.
2.Arrange the students into home groups of four. Assign a number to each student,
from one to four.
3.Direct all the students with the same number (for example, all the fours) to leave
OTES
Jot notes are quick summary notes that students write to record essential information
while they are reading, thinking, or engaging in a planning or brainstorming activity.
They are usually written in list form, and capture the ideas in as few words as possible.
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
NOW
ANTTO
NOW
KWL (Ogle, 1986) involves students in reflecting before, during, and after a lesson or
new topic either individually or in a group and provides them with a simple graphic
organizer to record their thinking. It helps students to draw on their prior knowledge
before reading; to mine the text for specific information during reading; and to sum-
marize their learning after reading.
The graphic organizer can be as simple as three columns on a flipchart page or chalkboard,
or a blank piece of paper folded in three. The recorder can be a teacher or a student.
KWL Sample Chart
Want
to LearnWhat I
1.Before students read a selected text (or conduct an experiment, or research a topic),
the teacher instructs them to do the following:
Think about what you already know about the topic, and record these ideas in
column one (What I
Know
). Start by brainstorming, and then group the ideas
Consider what you want to learn about the topic, and record these ideas or questions
in column two (What I
Want
to Learn). Keep these questions in mind as you read.
2.During reading, students keep track of what they are learning from the text for
example, by highlighting or coding the text, or by taking notes.
3.After reading, students record their new learning in column three (What I
Learned
Learning buddies can benefit all students, but are particularly effective for struggling
learners. Students are assigned a learning buddy to help them with problem solving,
comprehension, organization of thinking, and vocabulary development. Learning bud-
dies should be at different levels of understanding to allow for the sharing of diverse
OAND
ROM
Accountable talk is an important part of literacy learning in the junior classroom. A key
aspect of accountable talk is attentive listening. The following sample anchor chart
can be used to help students become more effective listeners and collaborative learners.
Listening To and Learning From My Peers (Sample Anchor Chart)
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
sitting knees to knees and toes to toes
talking one at a time
watching the speaker
staying on topic
Words
I like the way you
We can build on _________s idea by ...
Can you explain your ...?
I think __________ is saying ...
I agree with __________ because ...
Thats a great idea, ______!
Could you help me understand ...?
ITERATURE
IRCLES
Summarizer
provides a clear, well-organized summary of the text, with a focus
describes how the text connects to his or her own life (text to self),
Literary Luminary
selects key passages from the text to read aloud, and discusses
why those passages are important.
Illustrator
creates an interesting picture, graphic organizer, or other visual to
Vocabulary Enricher
Discussion Director
guides the group discussion by posing relevant and interesting
Student Name: __________________________________________________________
My goal(s) are: ___________________________________________________________
Actions to reach my goals are: _____________________________________________
During Literature Circles, I practise
I attend to the topic.
I participate actively in the group.
I listen carefully.
I ask questions.
I connect my ideas to the
comments of others.
I allow all members of the group
to participate.
I am constructive when I disagree.
I support opinions with evidence.
Examples of my behaviour:
APPING
Displaying ideas graphically is a strategy that students can use in any subject area
to help organize their thinking. The following are some examples of ways to map
or graphically organize their ideas.
Types of Mapping
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
To show the steps
Venn Diagram:
To compare and
Timeline:
To show a chronology
Web
To show the
Yes
ULTIPLE
URVEY
I would like to know more about you. Please read each statement and think about yourself and
what you like to do. Check all the items that describe you.
I enjoy reading
I enjoy writing
I like to take part in debates and/or discussions.
I keep a diary or journal.
I like telling stories.
I like to work in an organized way.
I am interested in mathematics and/or science.
I enjoy brain teasers and games like Jeopardy, Clue, or chess.
I like to ask questions about how things work or why things are.
I like to invent things.
I enjoy solving visual puzzles.
I read maps, charts, and graphs easily.
I remember things best by seeing them.
When I read or write, I see pictures in my head.
I like to draw or create art pieces.
I like to doodle.
I prefer to be physically involved rather than sitting and watching.
I find it hard to sit for long periods of time.
I enjoy building and designing.
I learn best by moving, touching, or acting out information.
Im good at most sports.
Verbal/Linguistic
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
I often play music when I am working or relaxing.
I can easily remember things presented musically.
Its easy for me to follow the beat of music.
I know the tunes to many different songs.
I take music lessons outside of school.
I really enjoy working with other people.
I enjoy sharing my feelings and ideas with others.
I prefer group activities.
My friends often choose me to be the leader.
I like to teach others.
I like to be with others, not by myself.
I like to be alone to play or work on my hobbies, interests, or projects.
I keep a personal journal or diary to record my thoughts.
I am curious and ask a lot of questions.
I prefer the outdoors to the indoors.
I learn best when I go on field trips.
I enjoy learning about the environment or science.
I have a collection of rocks or shells.
I can name different types of insects or animals.
I like to bird watch.
Musical/Rhythmic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalist
ULTIPLE
URVEY
ULTIPLE
URVEY
Personal Profile
1. Check off each statement that applies to you.
Verbal/Linguistic
I enjoy talking on the telephone.
I enjoy keeping a journal and/or writing
stories and articles.
I like to go to the library and/or the
I would rather spend my personal time
reading than watching television.
I understand more by hearing someone
read or listening to the radio than by
watching television or movies.
Whenever I see a sign or billboard, I have
to take the time to read it.
I am often told that I express my ideas
and thoughts quite effectively.
Problem solving has always been easy
for me.
I love to identify, create, and sort things
into categories or lists.
I can easily add, subtract, multiply, and
divide numbers in my head.
I enjoy brain-teasers and games that require
logical thinking, such as mysteries.
My mind is always searching for patterns
or an order to things that makes sense.
easier for me to follow.
Checkers and chess are two of my
favourite board games.
I often find myself doodling during class
activities or when I am on the phone.
I love to draw and paint during my
personal time.
I have a good sense of direction.
When I read, I can see the story happen-
ing in my head.
I like solving jigsaws, mazes, and other
visual puzzles.
I like creating cartoon strips.
I am good at most sports.
I like to use tools to make things.
I am always curious about how things
I would rather show someone how to
I live a healthy lifestyle.
I participate in extreme sports, such
as snowboarding, kayaking, and/or
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
ULTIPLE
URVEY
Musical/Rhythmic
I often hum to myself while I am working
or walking.
I like to make up songs and/or tunes.
I have music lessons outside of school
and enjoy it.
I know the tunes to many different songs.
People often tell me that I have a pleasant
singing voice.
I often listen to music during my spare
time.
It is easy for me to follow the beat of
music.
Interpersonal
I enjoy talking to people.
I think of myself as a leader, rather than
as a follower, when I am with my friends.
My friends often come to me for advice.
ual sports.
I like to spend my spare time with my
friends rather than alone.
I like to do group projects and activities
in class.
I enjoy teaching others.
I usually talk over my personal problems
with friends.
Intrapersonal
I am curious and ask a lot of questions.
I know my strengths and weaknesses.
I have no problem sharing my feelings or
I keep a personal journal or diary to
record my thoughts.
Some people say that I am strong-willed
When I have a personal problem, I like
to figure out how to solve it on my own.
Naturalist
trees, flowers, and other things in nature.
I learn best by going on field trips.
I like to bird watch.
I am good at forecasting the weather.
animals.
I have a collection of rocks and/or shells.
involved in conservation projects.
ULTIPLE
CORE
Follow these steps to draw a bar graph that shows a picture of the different ways you like to learn:
7
Verbal/
Visual/
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
ASKSFOR
ULTIPLE
Verbal/Linguistic
prepare a report
write a play, essay, or poem
conduct an interview
give directions
create a magazine
create a collection
Visual/Spatial
create a game or film
compose a rap song or cheer
create a jingle to teach others
listen and respond to musical selections
write a poem
create a soundscape
select music or songs for a purpose
write a choral reading
describe a sequence or product
analyse and critically assess a text
classify, rank, or compare items
create a role-play
construct a model or representation
develop a mime
create a tableau
work through a simulation
create actions for a song or other text
work with a partner or group to organize
solve a problem with a partner or group
conduct a survey or interview
dialogue about a topic
contribute to a jigsaw or other collaborative
conduct an experiment
categorize materials or ideas
write a text inspired by nature
adapt materials to a new use
connect/compare ideas to natural
examine materials and find connections
(Adapted from Gregory and Chapman, 2002; and Bosch, 19972004)
LACE
Place Mat is a collaborative learning activity that gives students an opportunity to
1.Decide on a question or topic for the students to address.
2.Organize the students into groups of four, and give each group a piece of chart paper.
3.Direct each group to draw a circle or square in the centre of the paper and then
divide the remaining area of the paper into equal sections, with one section for each
group member.
4.Ask the students to think about the chosen topic and then silently write about it
in their own area of the chart paper for several minutes.
5.After several minutes, signal the students to stop. Instruct them to discuss the ideas
on the place mat with their group looking for common elements. The group must
reach consensus and record the most important points in the centre of the place mat.
6.Each group shares its work with the other groups.
Place Mat (Template)
ELATIONSHIP
(QAR)
Question-Answer Relationship (QAR) is a strategy developed by Taffy Raphael to
help students identify and answer different types of questions (Raphael, 1982; 1986).
Four types of questions are involved:
Right-there questions
use words taken directly from the text. Answers can be
Think-and-search questions
require students to search through an entire passage
to find the information that applies, and to make connections in order to formulate
an answer.
Author-and-you questions
require students to read the text in order to under-
stand the questions; however, the answers are found beyond the text, requiring
students to make connections to prior knowledge and experiences.
On-my-own questions
can be answered from the students prior knowledge and
experiences; they do not require reading the text.
The first two types of questions are text-based, meaning that the answers can be found
in the text. The second two types of questions are knowledge-based, meaning that the
answers reside with the student.
QAR can be used before, during, and after reading. Students use it to find evidence
in the text and to draw conclusions and make inferences based on explicit and implied
information. This strategy can help all students use texts more efficiently to find answers
and make meaning. Struggling readers, in particular, can benefit from understanding
that not all answers are found in the text.
For more information on QAR, see the English Language Arts Home Page, Greece
UESTIONINGTHE
Questioning the Author (Beers, 2003) is a strategy to promote critical-literacy skills
for reading. It involves students in small groups of five or fewer.
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
4.Prepare a template, such as the following, for each student to use during the lesson.
Questioning the Author (Template)
The questionThe author saysI saySo
A Quick Write is a first-draft response to a piece of writing, or a prompt (Rief, 2003).
It is quick, usually taking only two or three minutes, and its purpose is to generate
ideas, activate
ALLYROBIN
In pairs, students take turns sharing ideas orally. Like tennis players, they toss their
Ranking Ladder is a higher-order thinking activity that can be done in small or large
groups. It engages students in freely generating ideas or solutions to a problem and
then ranking their solutions. It helps students to develop the skill of prioritizing.
1.The teacher poses a problem.
2.The students work in groups to brainstorm all the possible solutions, deferring
judgement about the value of the solutions at this point in the process.
3.The students are asked to narrow down their choices to a maximum of seven ideas
and then rank them from first choice to last on a ranking ladder
4.The teacher randomly picks someone from each group to share their top two or
three ideas with the rest of the class.
a story in their own words,
relate
they have read in the story to their own experiences and background knowledge, and
reflect
on the meaning of the story and the effect it had on them. Each step requires
a higher-level skill than the previous one.
Students each take a turn sharing their ideas in their group, one at a time, going in
one direction, in a circle. Students have the right to pass (not to share).
OUNDTABLE
Students work in groups of four. Each group has only one pencil and one copy of a
handout/paper that will be rotated from person to person. It could be a story being
written by the group, or it could be following directions to solve a mystery or create a
1.Prepare an anchor chart (or charts) listing some prompts. (See sample charts, below.)
2.Direct students to find a partner and number themselves One or Two.
3.Read or provide an interesting, thought-provoking text for the students, in chunks
of three to five paragraphs.
4.Ask students to choose a sentence starter from the anchor chart.
5.Provide think time for students to formulate their response.
6.Direct Partner One to begin sharing. When Partner One is finished, Partner Two
7.Observe pairs in discussion. When talk has subsided, chunk the next section for
them to read.
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Predicting
I predict that ...
My guess is...
From the authors clues, I think that
I think that ...
Having read other books by this author,
I think the next thing that will happen is ...
This makes me think that ...
I think the author is really saying ...
At first I thought ____________, but now
I think ...
I think I understand what the author was
Does this information align with what
I know?
This reminds me of ...
This part is like ...
The character, ____________, is like
____________ because ...
This is similar to/different from ...
I can relate to this character because ...
I have had a similar experience when ...
Whose point of view is missing?
Did you find ____________ confusing?
What would happen if ...?
Who is ...?
How do these characters relate to ...?
Do you agree/disagree with ...?
What is the authors intent?
Responding
This book is good because ...
I like/dont like the part where ...
My favourite part so far is ...
So far, I really love/dislike ...
This part is difficult because ...
How am I feeling, and why?
... B
... S
This instructional strategy can help students to draw inferences and make connections
during their reading.
1.Select an article, event, or story to read that requires students to draw inferences
Somebody Wanted ... But ... So (Sample Organizer)
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Survivors of the
Japanese intern-
They didnt know
ROJECT
A study guide is a practical tool to help readers understand a subject, concept,
text, activity, or event. Students can demonstrate their understanding of a subject
by creating their own study guide, either independently or as a group project.
Following is a small-group activity for developing a study guide.
1.Examine published study guides, looking for what makes each one effective for
2.Identify the elements of an effective study guide and post these on an anchor chart
for future reference. For example, responses might include:
Concise and clear explanations
Easy-to-read type
Bold headings
Simple diagrams
Wanted
To protect the
To be free
Canadians into
Many people who
lived through that
Easy vocabulary
Good organization
Humour
Interesting information
Focusing questions
Charts
Tips for remembering
Then the students work in groups of four, as follows, to create a study guide on a topic
chosen by the group.
3.As a group, decide which topic headings you want to include in your study guide,
using the Study Guide Planning Form. (See the chart below.) Assign one topic
heading (or more) to each group member.
4.Work individually to investigate your topic heading. If you find information that
would fit another heading, share it with the person investigating that topic heading.
Study Guide Planning Form
Study Guide Subject: _____________________________________________________
Topics for Research:
Topic
Topic and subtopics:
Topic and subtopics:
Assigned to
Topic and subtopics:
Topic and subtopics:
ARTY
Tea Party is a pre-reading activity that helps students activate their prior knowledge
and engage with a text (see Beers, 2003, pp. 94-101). The activity is like a tea party
LOUD
A think-aloud is a strategy for demonstrating the thought processes involved in accom-
plishing a task, such as reading, writing, or problem solving. The teacher thinks aloud
while modelling the task and stops at strategic points to demonstrate important literacy
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Think-Aloud Sentence Stems
This reminds me of ...
I know another ...
Ive read another ...
I remember when ...
Questioning the Text
What would happen if
Who is
Do you agree/disagree with
I wonder if
Can this be right?
I predict that ...
My guess is ...
From the authors clues, I think that ... will
Having read other books by this author,
I think the next thing that will happen is ...
To sum this up, I would say ...
This new information has helped me to ...
I used to think ... but now I know ...
I think this is important because ...
The change in font size leads me to
believe that ...
I need to remember ...
Visualizing
This description really helped me see ...
I could/couldnt really imagine ...
When I close my eyes, I see ...
This makes me think that ...
I think the author is really saying ...
At first I thought ... but now I think ...
This clue leads me to believe that ...
After reading this chapter/page, I suspect ...
I dont understand this word/part. I need
to reread ...
Maybe I could skip over ... and come back to ...
Maybe if I slow down, I can ...
(TPRC)
1.Distribute a template such as the one below.
2.Have students
about all that they know about a general topic (e.g., stringed
instruments), and list everything they know on the template. Allow six to eight minutes.
3.Indicate the specific topic of study (e.g., violins).
4.Have students
predict
what they might find in the reading.
5.Instruct students to
read
that actually appears in the reading.
6.Have students work in pairs to
what they knew before reading with what
they learned during reading.
Think, Predict, Read, Connect (TPRC Template)
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Think, Predict, Read, Connect
General Topic:_________________________________________
Specific Topic: _________________________________________
What do you
you know about the general topic before reading the text?
What do you
Predict
about the specific topic before reading the text?
As you
Read
the text, look for the items you listed above, and place a star beside each item that
you found in the reading. Add other important information you learned as you read.
what you knew before with what you learned.
Reflect
on what you think and how you feel about what you read.
Think/Timed-Pair-Share is a tactic for organizing paired discussions. The addition
of thinking time before each student shares with his or her partner and the option of
dialogue time after each turn make this a safe activity for students. Partners have time
to think, rehearse, and debrief before sharing with the larger group.
1.Organize students into pairs, then pose a question.
2.Ask the students to think about a response.
3.Ask each pair to take turns sharing their thinking with their partner. Each partner
speaks for one minute, without interruption.
4.After each one-minute turn, the partners may engage in a dialogue for an additional
minute about the ideas shared.
SSIGNMENTS
Example of a Tiered Assignment
Option 1:
Option 2:
Collect data on a weather phenomenon and write and present a
weather report.
Option 3:
Write a rebuttal article supporting or opposing Canadas support
for victims of disastrous weather outside of Canada.
OTAL
TPR is a very effective strategy for the early stages of second-language learning.
A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
Im waking up.
Im rubbing my eyes.
Im yawning.
ALUE
1.Draw a line on the floor using string or masking tape. Label one end with Strongly
Support, the other end with Strongly Oppose, and the middle with Not Sure.
2.Pose a question or issue for the students to consider (for example:
Should schools instal
soft-drink vending machines?
(Source: Asher, 2003)
A walkabout can refer to either of the following:
A group of students, or all students in the class, walk around the classroom looking
at the displays of student work or other information.
The class is divided into small groups. Each group sends at least one member off to
see what the other groups in the class are doing. This person comes back and reports
his or her findings. The group then decides if they can use the new information to
support their thinking.
ROUND
In an organized manner, the teacher sweeps his or her hand around the room, giving
each student a chance to participate. During the hand sweep, the teacher pauses in
front of each student, indicating whose turn it is to share.
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A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION, GRADES 4 TO 6 VOLUME ONE
The Ministry of Education wishes to acknowledge the contribution
of the many individuals, groups, and organizations that participated
in the development and refinement of this resource document.
ISBN 1-4249-0244-4 (vol. 1)
A Guide To Effective Literacy Instruction Grades 4 To 6